"Estimates of early population are notoriously speculative, but recent estimates share the same order of magnitude, with a minimal immigrant population of perhaps 10,000 and a maximum migration of perhaps 100,000 people. In contrast, the population of Roman Britain at the end of the 4th century probably numbered three or four million. In this context, an invasion hypothesis relying on a mass migration of Anglo-Saxons to displace the native population and destroy the Roman order seems far-fetched. In fact, archaeological and literary evidence indicate that not until the 7th century did the Scandinavian and northern Germanic peoples, including the Angles and Saxons, adopt the use of mast and sail. A mass-migration across the North Sea using open, clinker-built, oar-driven warships such as the Sutton Hoo, Nydam (northern Germany) and Kvalsund (western Norway) vessels seems to be a logistical impossibility."
In the same publication (Issue 23, December 1997), Dr. Martin Evison adds:
"A re-consideration of the linguistic evidence began some decades ago and also suggests that the displacement of the native language was not caused by a displacement of native people. There is historical and linguistic evidence that suggests it may have been common for place-names to be translated from Brythonic into Old English. Inter-marriage between members of 'Anglo-Saxon' and 'Welsh' houses is also evident in the texts, and personal names occur which contain 'Welsh' elements in parts of England long after 'Anglo-Saxon' domination was thought complete."
|
|
THE HEPTARCHY The above map shows the approximate extent of the seven kingdoms c.700. The degree of dominance achieved by some rulers led to their being listed as a Bretwalda by the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'. |
As the territory controlled by the Anglo-Saxons increased, so kingdoms were established. Seven of these kingdoms - Northumbria (1 on the map), Mercia (2), East Anglia (3), Essex (4), Wessex (5), Kent (6) and Sussex (7) - (they later became known as the 'Heptarchy') rose to preeminence, and dominated, what can now truly be called, England. The territory under British rule was gradually pushed to the western margins. To the English, the Britons were 'Walas' or 'Wealas' (from which derive the terms Wales and Welsh), meaning 'foreigners'. The south-western peninsula, (Cornubia in Latin, Cernyw in Welsh, and Kernow in Cornish), Cornwall (Corn-'Walas'), eventually succumbed to Anglo-Saxon rule in the ninth century.
The 'Wal' prefix in place names, such as Walton, Walcot and Wallingford, is thought to indicate that they were British enclaves, which coexisted with Anglo-Saxon settlements.
Although it is believed that the settlers were a motley collection of Germanic peoples, Bede describes an orderly division of territory between just three major groups:
"Those who came over were of the three most powerful nations of Germany - Saxons, Angles, and Jutes. From the Jutes are descended the people, of Kent, and of the Isle of Wight, including those in the province of the West-Saxons who are to this day called Jutes, seated opposite to the Isle of Wight. From the Saxons, that is, the country which is now called Old Saxony, came the East-Saxons, the South-Saxons, and the West Saxons. From the Angles, that is, the country which is called Angulus, and which is said, from that time, to have remained desert to this day, between the provinces of the Jutes and the Saxons, are descended the East-Angles, the Midland-Angles, the Mercians, all the race of the Northumbrians, that is, of those nations that dwell on the north side of the river Humber, and the other nations of the Angles."
At the end of the 8th century, however, a cloud appeared on the Anglo-Saxon horizon ... Vikings. Arriving at first as seaborne raiders, they eventually organised into armies, and established a permanent presence on English soil.
Britain was subject to the predations of two Viking nations: the Norwegians and the Danes. The Norwegian Vikings established colonies to the north and west of Scotland, en route for Ireland (not making significant settlements in England until the 10th century, as a result of secondary migration from Ireland), whilst the Vikings who invaded England were predominantly Danes.
Finally, it was the kings of Wessex who led the Anglo-Saxon resurgence. The history of this turbulent period is presented, area by area:
However, a chronological 'Mainline' through the Heptarchy, highlighted by the coloured right-hand margin (as shown on this page), can be navigated by clicking on the link adjacent to the end of each section of coloured margin.
The Vikings' progress in England can be followed by clicking on the links: V
