"Between the accession of Diocletian in AD284 and the death of Constantine in AD337, the disturbed situation which held in the mid-third century came under control and the empire passed through a phase of recovery, consolidation and major social and administrative change."
Averil Cameron 'The Later Roman Empire' (published 1993)
- Britannia Prima - roughly, the south-west, based on Cirencester.
- Britannia Secunda - the north, based on York.
- Flavia Caesariensis - roughly the centre of the country, based on Lincoln.
- Maxima Caesariensis - the south-east, based on London.
EMPIRE OF CARAUSIUS.
"... in Gaul Helianus and Amandus had stirred up a band of peasants and robbers, whom the inhabitants call Bagaudae [probably meaning something like 'vagabonds'], and had ravaged the regions far and wide and were making attempts on very many of the cities ..."
The rebellion was quickly dealt with, but during the campaign:
Aurelius Victor 'Liber De Caesaribus' (written c.360)
"... Carausius, a citizen of Menapia [an area of Belgica], distinguished himself by his clearly remarkable exploits. For this reason and in addition because he was considered an expert pilot (he had earned his living at this job as a young man), he was put in charge of fitting out a fleet ..."
Aurelius Victor
"... at Boulogne to clear the sea along the coast of Belgica and Armorica, which the Franks and Saxons were infesting ..."
Around spring 286, Maximian was elevated to full emperor (i.e. Augustus) status. Diocletian remained the senior partner, however, assuming the title Jovius (after Jupiter), whilst Maximian took that of that of Herculius (after Hercules). Meanwhile, Carausius:
Eutropius 'Breviarium Ab Urbe Condita' (written c.370)
"... frequently captured many barbarians but neither returned the booty intact to the provincials nor sent it to the emperors. When it began to be suspected that the barbarians were being admitted by him on purpose, so that he might intercept them with their booty as they passed by and use this opportunity to enrich himself, his execution was ordered ..."
Eutropius
"... in fear of Herculius, who he learned, had ordered his execution, he seized the imperial power and made for Britain."
Aurelius Victor
"In that vile act of brigandage the fleeing pirate seized first the fleet which once protected provinces of Gaul, built many more besides in Roman style, seduced a Roman legion, cut off divisions of provincial troops, recruited Gallic merchants to his service, won over hordes of barbarous forces by spoils from the provinces themselves, and through instruction by supporters of that disgraceful act he trained them all for naval duties."
'Panegyric on Constantius Caesar' (delivered 297 - usually attributed to Eumenius)
The fanciful Scottish chroniclers, John of Fordun and Hector Boece (or Boethius) claim that Carausius enlisted the assistance of the Picts and Scots to crush Roman resistance, and, as a reward for their help, he ceded territory to them. Boece says that, in a battle near York, the Roman commander, Quintus Bassianus, was killed. Whilst these nationalistic yarns have to be taken with a large dose of salt, it is a fact that, although Carausius issued coins in commemoration of some legions stationed in Europe, none have been found which refer to the VI Victrix, the legion which it is believed was based at York.
Carausius probably had his capital in London and it is fairly certain that he established a mint there. Some, though by no means all, of his coins bear a mint mark. Those bearing the letter L are considered to have been minted in London; but there are also coins bearing the letter C, and, although there are several candidates, their provenance is not known with any degree of certainty. Carausius also minted coins at Rouen, in northern Gaul, which, it is thought, date from the very beginning of his reign (possibly, even before he had taken control in Britain). The extent of Carausius' holdings in Gaul is the subject of conjecture. Inscriptions on his coins suggest that Carausius saw himself as a saviour, restoring the traditional values of Rome's 'good old days'.
The only other surviving inscription relating to Carausius is on a milestone, found near Carlisle. It reads:
IMP C M AVR MAVS CARAVSIO INVICTO AVG
This is interpreted as 'Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Mausaeus Carausius the Invincible Augustus'. Eutropius says that Carausius "was of the meanest birth", so, by assuming the names 'Marcus Aurelius', he is applying a little gloss to his pedigree.
A panegyric to Maximian indicates that, probably in 289, a campaign against Carausius was undertaken:
"It is a mark I say of your good fortune, your success, oh Emperor, that even now your soldiers have reached the Ocean victorious; even now the ebb and flow of tide has drained the blood of enemies slaughtered on that shore."
Maximian's good fortune, however, did not continue. A fleet was assembled, to mount an assault on Britain, but, officially at least, the attempt was scotched by bad weather. It is quite possible that it was actually Carausius' naval supremacy which was responsible for the failure, a view which seems to be supported by Eutropius, who reports that:
"... peace was eventually concluded [with Carausius], since war had proven to be ineffective against a man so skilled in military matters."
Aurelius Victor states that:
"... Carausius was allowed to retain his sovereignty over the island, after he had been judged quite competent to command and defend its inhabitants against warlike tribes."
Carausius issued coins, showing himself alongside Diocletian and Maximian, bearing the legend "Carausius et Fratres Sui" (Carausius and his Brothers).
Portus Adurni (Portchester) Saxon Shore Fort.
Despite the later additions, Portchester claims to have "the most complete Roman walls in Northern Europe".
Although it cannot be said with complete certainty that Carausius initiated the construction of a network of defences called the 'Saxon Shore Forts', the archaeological evidence shows that, at least, work continued unabated during his reign.
The forts get their name from an entry in the 'Notitia Dignitatum'. Nine forts, around the south-eastern corner of Britain, are listed under the command of the 'Count of the Saxon Shore of Britain' [Comes litoris Saxonici per Britanniam]. The obvious assumption is that the term 'Saxon Shore' was applied because this stretch of coast was vulnerable to raids by the Saxons, but this is by no means certain. It is not known at what date the appellation came into use, and it may be that the Saxons referred to were settlers rather than raiders. It is, however, generally accepted that the purpose of this system of forts was to provide a defence against raids by Germanic pirates (although, from Carausius' point of view, it would, of course, be equally effective against any attempt, by Rome, to dislodge him).Despite the later additions, Portchester claims to have "the most complete Roman walls in Northern Europe".
"And so immediately by your coming, Caesar, you made the provinces of Gaul your own. Indeed that swiftness with which you outstripped all the news of your elevation and arrival allowed you to seize and crush within the walls of Gesoriacum [Boulogne] the company of that piratical clique which still clung to its poor delusions ... that harbour's basin, where the swell of Ocean ebbs and flows, you made impassable for ships, with piles fixed at its mouth and added mounds of rock."
This defeat may have been the catalyst for a plot against Carausius, since, as Eutropius reports:
'Panegyric on Constantius Caesar'
"... his colleague, Allectus, killed him and he himself held the British provinces for three years after Carausius."
Aurelius Victor, however, suggests that Allectus had an ulterior motive for overthrowing Carausius:
"... Allectus who, after he had been entrusted by the former [i.e. Carausius] to manage the treasury, fearing execution because of his misdeeds, had seized power through a criminal act."
Excavations on the site of an unfinished monumental complex, near St.Paul's in London, produced timber remains dating from the reign of Allectus. It is thought possible that this would have been his palace, but he never survived to complete it.
It was inevitable that, as soon as the resources could be spared, the legitimate empire would make a concerted effort to return Britain to the fold:
"... certainly, though Britain was but a single name, its loss to the state was not without significance - a land so rich in harvests, with such abundant pasture, shot through with so many seams of ore, a lucrative source of so much tribute, girded round with so many ports, so vast in its extent."
Constantius mounted his assault on Britain in 296. Despite poor weather conditions, a section of his forces, under the praetorian prefect Asclepiodotus, sailed from the Seine whilst Constantius himself sailed from Boulogne. Aurelius Victor says that Asclepiodotus was "sent ahead with a detachment of the fleet and of the legions", whereas the 'Panegyric on Constantius Caesar' suggests it was Constantius who sailed first. At any rate, it was Asclepiodotus' forces who arrived first. Under cover of fog, they slipped past Allectus' fleet, which was stationed on the Isle of Wight, landed, and promptly burned their ships. The panegyrist explains:
'Panegyric on Constantius Caesar'
"As for the fact that the army, invincible under your leadership, set fire to all its ships the moment it set foot upon the coast of Britain, who else inspired that act except the will of your divinity? Or what other reasoning persuaded them to maintain in reserve no refuge for retreat, nor fear the uncertainties of war, nor contemplate that Mars may favour either side, except the certain knowledge, sprung from observation of yourself, that there could be no doubt about the victory?.. Yet why did that ringleader [Allectus] of the abominable clique abandon the coast he occupied? Why did he desert his fleet and harbour unless he feared your imminent arrival, invincible Caesar, when he saw your sails bearing down on him? At all events he preferred to take his chance with your commanders [i.e. Asclepiodotus] rather than to feel in person the thunderbolt of your majesty... Yet in fleeing from you he fell into the hands of your men, and defeated by you he was overwhelmed by your armies. Finally, in terror, looking for you behind him, crazed like some madman, he so hastened to his death that he neither deployed his line of battle nor arranged the forces he trailed after him, but rather, mindless of his great preparations, he rushed to the attack with only those old instigators of the plot and divisions of foreign mercenaries. And so, Caesar, even this advantage did your good fortune bestow upon the state, that in this victory of the Roman Empire scarcely did a single Roman fall. For, so I am told, all those plains and hills were littered only with the prostrate corpses of our loathsome enemies. Those bodies of barbarians or those that once feigned barbarous ways in style of dress and long blond hair, now lay besmirched with dust and gore, frozen into various attitudes of death imposed by agony of wounds, and among them the ringleader of that band of brigands himself. Of his own accord the royal robe that in his lifetime he defiled, he'd taken off, and by the evidence of scarce a single garment was he recognised. So truly had he taken counsel with himself as death approached, that he was eager to escape detection in his death."
The victorious Romans marched on London:
"... there through all the city they destroyed the remnants of the barbarous horde that had survived the battle, just as they were taking thought for flight after pillaging the place, and thus afforded your provincials not only safety by the slaughter of the foe, but also the pleasure of beholding it... Deserved, therefore, was the triumphal gathering that streamed forth to greet your majesty the moment that you landed on the shore, the longed-for avenger and liberator. Beside themselves with joy, the Britons met you with their wives and children. With veneration they regarded not only you yourself, on whom they looked as one from heaven descended, but even the sails and oars of that vessel that brought your divine person, and they were ready on their prostrate bodies your tread to feel. No wonder is it if they were borne along by such great joy after so many years of wretched captivity, the violation of their wives, their children's shameful servitude. At last they were free, at last Romans, at last restored afresh by the true light of the empire."
"Meanwhile, Diocletian in the east, and Maximian Herculius in the west, commanded the churches to be destroyed, and the Christians to be slain. This persecution was the tenth since the reign of Nero, and was more lasting and bloody than all the others before it; for it was carried on incessantly for the space of ten years, with burning of churches, outlawing of innocent persons, and the slaughter of martyrs. At length, it reached Britain also, and many persons, with the constancy of martyrs, died in the confession of their faith."
Bede 'Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum'
"The persecution was very unevenly carried out: Maximian and Constantius Chlorus in the west evidently showed little enthusiasm for the policy, even if we disregard Eusebius's apologia for the latter ....
"At a time when four emperors shared the administration of the Roman empire, Constantius alone, following a course of conduct different from that pursued by his colleagues, entered into the friendship of the Supreme God... In short, while his colleagues oppressed all men by the most grievous exactions, and rendered their lives intolerable, and even worse than death, Constantius alone governed his people with a mild and tranquil sway, and exhibited towards them a truly parental and fostering care."
Eusebius (Bishop of Caesarea, d. before 341) 'The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine'
.... but in the east many bishops and clergy were imprisoned and tortured or mutilated, and the bishop of Nicomedia and others were beheaded"
Averil Cameron
"... when Diocletian began to feel less than capable of governing the empire as old age weighed upon him, he convinced Herculius that they should retire into private life and entrust the duty of preserving the state to younger and more vigorous men. His colleague complied reluctantly."
On 1st May 305, Diocletian and Maximian abdicated. In accordance with the principles of the Tetrarchy: Galerius replaced Diocletian as Augustus in the east, and Maximinus Daia was appointed as his Caesar, while, in the west, Constantius replaced Maximian as Augustus, and Severus was appointed as his Caesar. Constantine was Constantius' son:
Eutropius
"This Constantine, then, born of Helena, a mother of very common origin ... was held as a hostage [to secure his father's loyalty] by Diocletian and Galerius, and did valiant service under those emperors in Asia. After the abdication of Diocletian and Herculius, Constantius asked Galerius to return his son; but Galerius first exposed him to many dangers... Then at last Galerius sent him back to his father. But in order to avoid meeting Severus as he passed through Italy, Constantine crossed the Alps with the greatest haste, ordering the post-horses to be killed as he went on; and he came up with his father Constantius at Bononia, which the Gauls formerly called Gesoriacum [Boulogne]. But his father Constantius, after winning a victory over the Picts, died at York, and Constantine was unanimously hailed as Caesar by all the troops."
'Origo Constantini Imperatoris'
The 'Origo Constantini Imperatoris' (The Lineage of the Emperor Constantine) is the first of two works which form the 'Anonymous Valesianus'. Though their origins are separated by more than a century, they coexist in a single ninth century manuscript. As might be guessed, both are by unknown authors (the second work being mainly concerned with Theodoric 'the Great', King of the Ostrogoths - dating from around 550). They were first published in 1636 (in Paris) by Henri de Valois (in Latin: Henricus Valesius). The 'Origo Constantini Imperatoris' possibly dates from around 390, and is generally regarded as providing a sober, trustworthy, view of its subject matter.
Constantine proved to be very important to the Christian church ....
"... his support for Christianity, which fundamentally changed the fortunes of the Christian church and may well be responsible for its later history as a world religion... to write about Constantine at all entails choosing between the conflicting sources, or at least taking a view about the credibility of Eusebius, the main Christian source ..."
Averil Cameron
"... [Constantine] had been with his father's imperial colleagues, and had passed his life among them, as we have said, like God's ancient prophet... The emperors then in power, observing his manly and vigorous figure and superior mind, were moved with feelings of jealousy and fear, and thenceforward carefully watched for an opportunity of inflicting some brand of disgrace on his character. But the young man, being aware of their designs, the details of which, through the providence of God, more than once came to him, sought safety in flight; in this respect again keeping up his resemblance to the great prophet Moses. Indeed, in every sense God was his helper; and he had before ordained that he should be present in readiness to succeed his father....
Constantine's unplanned elevation to the purple was the cue for a power struggle which took eighteen years to fully resolve. By 312, Galerius had died of a painful illness, and Severus and Maximian had met violent ends. Diocletian, however, refused to be drawn into the conflict and would die in retirement. The East was ruled by Maximinus Daia and Licinius; the West by Constantine and Maxentius (Maximian's son).
Aurelius Victor and Zosimus (both pagans) stress Constantine's ambition:
.... Immediately, therefore, on his escape from the plots which had been thus insidiously laid for him, he made his way with all haste to his father, and arrived at length at the very time that he was lying at the point of death. As soon as Constantius saw his son thus unexpectedly in his presence, he leaped from his couch, embraced him tenderly, and, declaring that the only anxiety which had troubled him in the prospect of death, namely, that caused by the absence of his son, was now removed, he rendered thanks to God, saying that he now thought death better than the longest life, and at once completed the arrangement of his private affairs. Then, taking a final leave of the circle of sons and daughters by whom he was surrounded, in his own palace, and on the imperial couch, he bequeathed the empire, according to the law of nature, to his eldest son, and breathed his last... Constantine invested himself with his father's purple, and proceeded from his father's palace, presenting to all a renewal, as it were, in his own person, of his father's life and reign. He then conducted the funeral procession in company with his father's friends, some preceding, others following the train, and performed the last offices for the pious deceased with an extraordinary degree of magnificence, and all united in honouring this thrice blessed prince with acclamations and praises, and while with one mind and voice, they glorified the rule of the son as a living again of him who was dead, they hastened at once to hail their new sovereign by the titles of Imperial and Worshipful Augustus, with joyful shouts... Thus then the God of all, the Supreme Governor of the whole universe, by his own will appointed Constantine, the descendant of so renowned a parent, to be prince and sovereign: so that, while others have been raised to this distinction by the election of their fellow- men, he is the only one to whose elevation no mortal may boast of having contributed... As soon then as he was established on the throne, he began to care for the interests of his paternal inheritance, and visited with much considerate kindness all those provinces which had previously been under his father's government. Some tribes of the barbarians who dwelt on the banks of the Rhine, and the shores of the Western ocean, having ventured to revolt, he reduced them all to obedience, and brought them from their savage state to one of gentleness. He contented himself with checking the inroads of others, and drove from his dominions, like untamed and savage beasts, those whom he perceived to be altogether incapable of the settled order of civilized life. Having disposed of these affairs to his satisfaction, he directed his attention to other quarters of the world, and first passed over to the British nations, which lie in the very bosom of the ocean. These he reduced to submission, and then proceeded to consider the state of the remaining portions of the empire, that he might be ready to tender his aid wherever circumstances might require it.""... Severus and Maximinus, natives of Illyricum, were appointed Caesars ... Unable to tolerate this, Constantine, whose proud and capable spirit had been stirred ever since boyhood by the passion to rule, reached Britain in a planned escape ..."
Aurelius Victor
Aurelius Victor
"... Constantine, who was the son of Constantius by a concubine, and had previously an ambition of being emperor (but was more inflamed with that desire, since Severus and Maximinus had acquired the name and honour of Caesars), was now resolved to leave the place where he had resided, and go to his father Constantius ..."
Zosimus
Zosimus
"... Constantine, who had long been jealous of him [Maxentius], was then much more disposed to contention. Having therefore raised an army amongst the Barbarians, Germans, and Celts [Gauls], whom he had conquered, and likewise drawn a force out of Britain, amounting in the whole to ninety thousand foot and eight thousand horse, he marched from the Alps into Italy, passing those towns that surrendered without doing them any damage, but taking by storm those which resisted."
The decisive engagement was the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (outside Rome), on October 28th 312, which ended in a victory for Constantine, and the death of Maxentius. According to tradition, Constantine owed his victory to a vision in which God told him he would be victorious, if he went into battle under the Chi Rho symbol of Christianity.
Zosimus 'Historia Nova' (probably written in the early 500s)
"Constantine was directed in a dream to cause the heavenly sign to be delineated on the shields of his soldiers, and so to proceed to battle. He did as he had been commanded, and he marked on their shields the letter X, with a perpendicular line drawn through it and turned round thus at the top, being the cipher of CHRIST. Having this sign, his troops stood to arms. The enemies advanced, but without their emperor, and they crossed the bridge. The armies met, and fought with the utmost exertions of valour, and firmly maintained their ground. In the meantime a sedition arose at Rome, and Maxentius was reviled as one who had abandoned all concern for the safety of the commonwealth ... he [Maxentius] went to the field. The bridge in his rear was broken down. At sight of that the battle grew hotter. The hand of the Lord prevailed, and the forces of Maxentius were routed. He fled towards the broken bridge; but the multitude pressing on him, he was driven headlong into the Tiber."
The above account of the Battle of the Milvian Bridge is from Lactantius' 'De Mortibus Persecutorum' (On the Death of the Persecutors). Lactantius was, from about 316, Latin tutor to Constantine's son, Crispus. In 326, in somewhat mysterious circumstances, Constantine seems to have had both Crispus and his own wife, Fausta (who was not Crispus' mother), put to death."... whatever it was that happened to Constantine before the battle, there is no doubt of his commitment to supporting the church from AD312 onwards ..."
Averil Cameron
"... Christians and all others should have liberty to follow that mode of religion which to each of them appeared best ..."
Perturbed by this chain of events, Maximinus Daia mounted an ultimately unsuccessful campaign against Licinius. After the death of Maximinus Daia (probably July 313), there was an uneasy peace between Constantine and Licinius.
Lactantius
"Constantine, however, a remarkable man who strove to achieve everything he had set his heart on, and had at the same time aspired to rule the whole world, made war on Licinius ... there were various wars between them and peace was restored and broken. Finally Licinius, after being defeated at Nicomedia in a naval and land engagement, surrendered ..."
Constantine was now (324) sole ruler of the Roman Empire.
Eutropius
"It has often been argued that Constantine supported the Christians only for reasons of self interest. This seems Prima facie unlikely, since the percentage of Christians in the empire as a whole was still tiny ... Having once committed himself, Constantine never deviated from his decision... Simply having a Christian emperor on the throne did not bring about mass conversion, and the Christianization of society in general took place only very slowly... His main contribution to the development of the church lay however in the attitude which he adopted towards it as an institution; unwittingly, he set a momentous precedent for future relations between emperor and church ... This relationship shows itself most clearly in his unhesitating interventions in ecclesiastical disputes and his calling of church councils, especially the first so-called 'ecumenical' council, held at Nicaea in AD325, and in his dealings with bishops."
Averil Cameron
"It is commonly, but wrongly, stated that in founding Constantinople, Constantine intended to move the capital to the east, and indeed, Constantinople did later become the capital of the Byzantine empire. But though it still kept its prestige, Rome had already begun to be superseded as an imperial residence by such centres as Trier and Milan ..."
Averil Cameron
"The fact that Constantine was not baptized until his death was near does not imply doubt, for baptism was taken very seriously and it was common to defer it as late as possible so that there was less chance of committing mortal sin subsequently."
Averil Cameron
"Thus was Constantine the first of all sovereigns who was regenerated and perfected in a church dedicated to the martyrs of Christ; thus gifted with the Divine seal of baptism, he rejoiced in spirit, was renewed, and filled with heavenly light: his soul was gladdened by reason of the fervency of his faith, and astonished at the manifestation of the power of God. At the conclusion of the ceremony he arrayed himself in shining imperial vestments, brilliant as the light, and reclined on a couch of the purest white, refusing to clothe himself with the purple any more."
Eusebius
