Danish England
I: Cnut the Great

Having briefly shared the rule of England with Edmund Ironside (son of King Æthelred the Unready), Cnut (son of Swein Forkbeard, king of Denmark and, for a short time, England), became king of the whole country following Edmund’s death on 30th November 1016.[*]

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Manuscripts C, D and E:

Æthelred’s widow, Emma, was a Norman. Her father was Richard the Fearless (Richard I), and her brother was the incumbent duke of Normandy, Richard the Good (Richard II). It seems reasonable to suppose that Cnut’s main motive for marrying Emma was to neutralize the threat of her brother pursuing a claim to the English throne on behalf of Edward and Alfred, Emma’s sons by Æthelred. The two æthelings would remain exiles in Normandy for the duration of Cnut’s reign.

Having spent 1017 securing his position, Cnut was apparently confident enough to discharge much of his army the following year.

Recorded by Symeon of Durham, the Scots’ king, Malcolm II, in cahoots with Owain the Bald, king of Strathclyde, inflicted a defeat on Northumbrian forces: The Battle of Carham.

Rodulfus Glaber maintains that, after his marriage to Emma:

… Cnut set out with a very great army to subdue to himself the nation of the Scots; whose king was called Malcolm, powerful in resources and arms, and (what was most efficacious) very Christian in faith and deed. And when [Malcolm] knew that Cnut audaciously sought to invade his kingdom, he collected his nation’s whole army, and resisted him strongly, so that he should not succeed. And Cnut shamelessly prosecuted these claims for a long time, and vigorously; but at last, by persuasion of the aforesaid Richard, the duke of Rouen, and of [Richard’s] sister [i.e. Emma], he entirely laid aside all ferocity, for the love of God; became gentle, and lived in peace. Moreover also for friendship’s sake, having affection for the king of the Scots, he received [Malcolm’s] son [who is otherwise unknown] from the holy font of baptism.

Historiarum Libri Quinque II, 3

If Rodulfus’ story is right, these events should be set between 1017 and 1026, in which year Duke Richard died. The only recorded encounter between English and Scottish forces during that period was at Carham in 1018, but Cnut’s reign is only sketchily recorded, and it doesn’t seem unlikely that there were others.

The generally held belief is that Cnut’s brother, Harald, king of Denmark, had recently died, and that the motive for Cnut’s 1019–20 expedition was to assure his own succession to the Danish throne.[*] He would be remembered by posterity as Cnut the Great.

It is clear that Thorkell the Tall was Cnut’s right-hand man – it is probable he acted as regent in England whilst Cnut was in Denmark.[*] However:

The cause of the rift between Cnut and Thorkell is not known.

Whatever the reason for this, evidently newsworthy, excursion was, Cnut must have later sailed to Denmark.[*] He met with Thorkell, and they reached an extraordinary agreement:

Harthacnut, who can’t have been more than five years-old, was the only son of Cnut and Emma. He was still in England in June 1023, so perhaps it was a son by Cnut’s earlier liaison with Ælfgifu of Northampton that was despatched to Denmark. Presumably, Cnut wouldn’t have made the deal he did with Thorkell if the latter did not have strong military support.[*] Be that as it may, after this, Thorkell simply disappears from history.

Another figure who vanishes from the record in 1023 is Eric of Hlathir.[*] From c.1000, Earl Eric, a famed warrior, had ruled in Norway under Danish suzerainty. Whist Eric was engaged in Cnut’s campaign to conquer England, Olaf Haraldsson, known as Olaf the Stout, established himself as king of Norway (Olaf II).

Now, according to the timescale suggested in the story told by Snorri Sturluson, it was in the spring of 1025 that Cnut sent envoys to Olaf Haraldsson, offering not to invade Norway if Olaf agreed to rule with Cnut as his overlord.[*] Not surprisingly, Olaf sent a message back to Cnut rejecting his proposal – vowing: “I will defend Norway with point and edge, as long as my life lasts, and moreover pay no man taxes from my realm.”  Expecting the worst, Olaf sought an alliance with his brother-in-law, King Anund of Sweden. In the autumn, Cnut, “with very large numbers of men”, sailed to Denmark. He was told that messages had been exchanged between Olaf and Anund: “and that plans for some great undertaking must underlie them.”  Cnut sent his own messengers to Anund, in an attempt to prevent him getting involved. Anund did not, however, respond favourably to Cnut’s overtures, and it was obvious to the messengers: “that King Anund must be very inclined to friendship with King Olaf.”  So, in the summer of 1026, Cnut and his army returned to England. He left behind his son, Harthacnut, and installed his brother-in-law, Earl Ulf Thorgilsson, as his viceroy and guardian to Harthacnut. (There is no mention of the arrangements Cnut had made for the government of Denmark before this point). When Cnut had gone, Ulf persuaded the Thing to declare Harthacnut king of Denmark. Ulf claimed that that was what Cnut desired, and produced a forged letter to back up his claim. It is said that Emma was the brains behind the scheme, and that it was her who provided the falsified document. The next summer, i.e. 1027, saw the fleets of Olaf and Anund harrying Denmark, intent on conquest. Harthacnut and Ulf didn’t believe that they had sufficient force to oppose the two kings, so they awaited the arrival of Cnut. Cnut, accompanied by Earl Eric’s son, Earl Hakon, duly arrived with a large fleet.[*] Harthacnut begged his father’s forgiveness (he couldn’t have been more that nine years-old), which was readily given. Rather than face Cnut himself, Ulf despatched his own son (the same age as Harthacnut) to act as his emissary. Cnut sent the boy back, with the message that Ulf should: “muster an army and ships and thus come to meet the king, but he would talk later about his atonement. The earl did so.”  Cnut heard that Olaf and Anund were ravaging the Danish province of Scania (Skåne, in Sweden), and sailed against them: “he had a great army and one twice as big as their two put together.”  When he caught-up with the two kings’ forces, Cnut decided it was too late in the day to engage them, so he moored-up his own ship, and as many ships of his vast fleet as he could, at the mouth of the Holy River, leaving most of his ships at sea. However, he had fallen into a trap. A dam, constructed for the purpose by Olaf and Anund, was broken – water and debris cascaded onto the ships moored in the river mouth, killing many men. Cnut’s ship, “the great dragon ship”, was propelled into the midst of the enemy ships. It was recognized and attacked, but it was so large and well defended that the attackers made little headway. Earl Ulf arrived with his fleet, “then a battle began”, and the ships of Cnut’s fleet that had remained at sea began to close in on Olaf and Anund. The two kings realised they had achieved as much as they could, and made a hasty exit before Cnut could fully recover. Olaf was keen to continue the campaign, but the Swedes were reluctant, and Olaf and Anund parted company. This story implies that Ulf fought on Cnut’s side – in a speech Snorri later gives him, Ulf claims that it was his intervention at the Holy River that had saved Cnut – but Saxo Grammaticus is clear that Ulf was on the side of Olaf and Anund, indeed, Ulf is portrayed as the mastermind behind their alliance against Cnut.[*] In Saxo’s story, many of Cnut’s men perished when Ulf enticed them to cross, en masse, a bridge which they had constructed, and which collapsed under their weight. In the stories of both Snorri and Saxo, Cnut later, though in different circumstances, has Ulf killed. At any rate, it would appear that the battle at the Holy River dated 1025 by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is the same as that placed in 1027 by Snorri’s story,[*] and that the encounter was not the disaster for Cnut implied by the Chronicle.

Cnut is known to have been in Rome at Easter 1027 (26th March), for the coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor Conrad II.[*] He wrote a letter to his English subjects, which is quoted by both Florence of Worcester and William of Malmesbury, soon after he left Rome:

Be it known to you, therefore, that returning by the same way that I went, I am now going to Denmark, through the advice of all the Danes, to make peace and firm treaty with those nations who were desirous, had it been possible for them, to deprive me both of life and of kingdom; this, however, they were not able to perform, since God, who by his kindness preserves me in my kingdom and in my honour, and destroys the power of all my adversaries, has brought their strength to nought.
Moreover, when I have established peace with the surrounding nations, and put all our kingdom here in the east in tranquil order, so that there shall be no fear of war or enmity on any side, I intend coming to England as early in the summer as I shall be able to get my fleet prepared.

(§§13–14. Florence of Worcester s.a. 1031; William of Malmesbury GR II §183)

From Cnut’s comments, it would appear that the business at the Holy River had happened not long before his trip to Rome, which suggests that it took place in 1026.

Snorri Sturluson tells how Cnut gathered his forces in Denmark, and then sailed to Norway. Olaf offered no challenge, and Cnut was accepted as king without fighting a battle. Olaf left Norway, finding refuge in Kievan Rus.

King Cnut had now subjected all the land in Norway to himself. Then he had a large assembly [i.e. Thing] of both his own men and the people of the country. Then King Cnut announced this, that he was going to give his kinsman Earl Hakon all the land that he had won in this expedition to oversee,[*] and at the same time, that he was installing in the high seat beside himself his son Harthacnut, and giving him the title of king and with it the realm of Denmark.

Heimskringla, ‘Saga of Olaf Haraldsson’ Chapter 171

According to Snorri Sturluson:

Earl Hakon that summer [i.e. 1029] went out of the country [Norway] and west to England, and when he got there, then King Cnut welcomed him. The earl had a fiancée there in England, and he was going to conclude this match and was planning to hold his wedding in Norway, but was procuring the provisions for it in England that he thought most difficult to obtain in Norway. The earl prepared for his journey home in the autumn, and was ready rather late. He sailed out to sea when he was ready, and of his journey there is this to relate, that the ship was lost and not a soul survived. But it is reported by some that the ship was seen north off Caithness one evening in a great storm, and the wind stood out into Pentland Firth. They say this, those who are willing to stand by this account, that the ship must have been carried into the whirlpool. But what is known for certain is that Earl Hakon was lost at sea and nothing reached land that was on that ship. That same autumn merchants carried the report that was circulating round the country, that it was thought that the earl was lost. But what everyone knew was that he did not get to Norway that autumn, and the country was now without a ruler.

Heimskringla, ‘Saga of Olaf Haraldsson’ Chapter 184

Cnut despatched his son, Swein, under the guardianship of his mother, Ælfgifu of Northampton, to Denmark:

… he was after that to go to Norway and take over the realm that was in Norway to govern, and as well to have the title of king over Norway.

Heimskringla, ‘Saga of Olaf Haraldsson’ Chapter 239

Meanwhile, news of Earl Hakon’s death had reached Olaf Haraldsson. He decided to take advantage, and attempt to recover Norway:

He considered in his mind that the country would be easy to win, since it was without a ruler, as he had now learned. He believed that if he came there himself, many would then be ready to support him again.

Heimskringla, ‘Saga of Olaf Haraldsson’ Chapter 188

This is the famous battle of Stiklestad. Snorri says (Ch. 235) it took place on 29th July – it started between noon and one-thirty, and Olaf was dead before three. By the time Olaf was meeting his end at Stiklestad (about 45 miles north-east of Trondheim), Swein and his mother had arrived at Viken (Oslofjord). They travelled through Norway – Swein being accepted as king everywhere he went.

King Swein introduced new laws into the country in respect of many things, and these were set up after the pattern of how the laws were in Denmark, though some were much harsher.… Added to this was the rule that now Danish men were to have this much standing in Norway, that the witness of one of them was to outweigh the witness of ten Norwegians. And when this legislation was made public, then people immediately began to develop feelings of resistance and started grumbling among themselves.

Heimskringla, ‘Saga of Olaf Haraldsson’ Chapter 239

The contemporary Icelandic poet Sighvat apparently refers to this event:

The most famous princes in the North from the midst of Fife have brought their heads to Cnut; that was to buy peace.

Henry of Huntingdon (HA VI, 17) is the earliest source for a famous story:

Before him [i.e. Cnut] there had never been in England a king of such great authority. He was lord of all Denmark, of all England, of all Norway, and also of Scotland.… when he was at the height of his ascendancy, he ordered his chair to be placed on the sea-shore as the tide was coming in. Then he said to the rising tide, “You are subject to me, as the land on which I am sitting is mine, and no one has resisted my overlordship with impunity. I command you, therefore, not to rise on to my land, nor to presume to wet the clothing or limbs of your master.” But the sea came up as usual, and disrespectfully drenched the king’s feet and shins. So jumping back, the king cried, “Let all the world know that the power of kings is empty and worthless, and there is no king worthy of the name save Him by whose will heaven, earth and sea obey eternal laws.” Thereafter King Cnut never wore the golden crown on his neck,[*] but placed it on the image of the crucified Lord, in eternal praise of God the great king. By whose mercy may the soul of King Cnut enjoy rest.[*]

The anonymous author of the Encomium Emmae Reginae avers (II, 19) that Cnut: “was Emperor of five kingdoms, for he had established claim to the rule of Denmark, England, Wales, Scotland and Norway.”[*]  Whilst in a verse attributed to Ottar the Black, Cnut is referred to as: “the king of the Danes, of the Irish and English and Island-dwellers”.  The historical record does provide some hints that Cnut could have acquired lordship over some Welsh and Irish rulers. Eilaf, Cnut’s earl, evidently raided south Wales in 1022. According to the Book of Llandaff, Joseph was consecrated bishop of Llandaff, on 1st October 1022,[*] by Æthelnoth, archbishop of Canterbury, with the approval of Cnut. At some subsequent time, King Rhydderch ab Iestyn, who ruled in south Wales, is said to have confirmed Llandaff’s possession of all its churches, lands and privileges, with Æthelnoth’s support, and with “recommendatory letters of Cnut, king of England”.[*]  Indicating the year 1030, the Annals of Tigernach record the: “Plundering of Wales by the English and the Foreigners [i.e. Vikings] of Dublin.”  Perhaps this was a joint-venture undertaken by Cnut’s forces and those of the Hiberno-Norse king of Dublin, Sihtric Silkbeard. Irish annals report that Sihtric’s son, Olaf, “was killed by the English on his way to Rome” in 1034, but no further information is given. In 1035, Caradog, a son of Rhydderch ab Iestyn, was “killed by the English” – Rhydderch himself having been “killed by the Irish” in 1033 – but, here too, the Welsh annals give no clue to the circumstances.[*]

Meanwhile, in Norway, the rule of Swein and, particularly, his mother, was deeply resented.[*] The late King Olaf Haraldsson, to whom many miracles were attributed, and who was being venerated as a saint, became the focus of an upsurge of nationalism. In 1034, a Norwegian deputation travelled to Novgorod (in Kievan Rus), where Magnus, the ten-year-old son of St Olaf, was living at the court of King Yaroslav the Wise. Magnus was invited to return to Norway, and press his claim to the throne. In 1035, with an army raised in Sweden, Magnus entered Norway. Swein was unable to gather sufficient force to resist him, and was obliged to flee to Denmark. Snorri Sturluson says that Harthacnut immediately offered to share the rule of Denmark with Swein, and that Swein accepted. (Presumably, Swein was accompanied to Denmark by his mother, but Snorri makes no reference to her). In the autumn of 1035, Magnus was established as king throughout Norway (Magnus I ‘the Good’).

… all who had heard of his death were moved, and especially his own subjects, of whom the majority would have wished to die with him, if this would not have been at variance with the divine plan.
The Lady Emma, his queen, mourned together with the natives, poor and rich lamented together, the bishops and clerics wept with the monks and nuns; but let the rejoicing in the kingdom of heaven be as great as was the mourning in the world!

Encomium Emmae Reginae II, 23–24