During the second half of 1013, the Danish king, Swein 'Forkbeard', had conquered England. After Christmas of that year, Æthelred 'the Unready' escaped from England, joining his wife, Emma (sister of Duke Richard II of Normandy), and their sons, who had already evacuated to Normandy. William of Jumièges, in the 'Gesta Normannorum Ducum' (Deeds of the Norman Dukes), which was written c.1070-1, says that Æthelred:
"... seeing himself completely abandoned by the English, carried off his treasure and went with his wife and his sons, Edward and Alfred, to duke Richard in Normandy. He was honourably received by the duke, given magnificent hospitality, and spent all his time with him at Rouen."
According to William of Jumièges, Richard had already concluded a peace treaty with Swein. Normandy was a place of refuge, where medical aid would be administered to any sick or injured Danes, whilst the Danes were obliged to dispose of their plunder in Normandy.
As luck would have it, Swein did not live to enjoy the kingdom that Æthelred had abandoned to him. He died, at Gainsborough, on 3rd February, 1014. The Danish fleet immediately elected Swein's son, Cnut, king (Cnut's brother, Harald, became king of Denmark).
It is almost certain that Harald was Swein's eldest son, but the anonymous author of the 'Encomium Emmae Reginae' insists that Cnut was the elder. The Encomiast says that, when he departed for England, Swein had left Harald in charge of Denmark, and that he nominated Cnut as his successor in England before he died.
Seizing their opportunity, the English witan contacted Æthelred:
"... saying that no sovereign was dearer to them than their natural lord, if he would govern them better than he did before. Then sent the king hither his son Eadweard [Edward], with his messengers; who had orders to greet all his people, saying that he would be their faithful lord - would better each of those things that they disliked - and that each of the things should be forgiven which had been either done or said against him; provided they all unanimously, without treachery, turned to him. Then was full friendship established, in word and in deed and in compact, on either side. And every Danish king they proclaimed an outlaw for ever from England. Then came King Æthelred home, in Lent, to his own people; and he was gladly received by them all....
William of Jumièges notes that Emma accompanied Æthelred to England, but their sons, Edward and Alfred, remained in Normandy.
.... Meanwhile, after the death of Swegen [Swein], sat Cnut with his army in Gainsborough until Easter [25th April]; and it was agreed between him and the people of Lindsey, that they should supply him with horses, and afterwards go out all together and plunder. But King Æthelred with his full force came to Lindsey before they were ready; and they plundered and burned, and slew all the men that they could reach. Cnut went out with his fleet (so were the wretched people betrayed by him), and proceeded southward until he came to Sandwich."
'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'
"... there he brought out the hostages which had been given to his father from all parts of England; and after their hand and ears had been cut off, and their nostrils slit up, allowed them to depart: he then went to Denmark, but only to return the next year."
Florence of Worcester
"Besides all these evils, the king ordered a tribute to the army that lay at Greenwich, of 21,000 pounds."
'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'
According to the 'Heimskringla', as soon as Æthelred returned to England "he sent an invitation to all the men who would enter into his pay, to join him in recovering the country." Amongst those who responded to Æthelred's invitation was Olaf Haraldsson, the future King Olaf II of Norway (St.Olaf). Olaf: "... with a great troop of Northmen ... steered first to London, and sailed into the Thames with their fleet; but the Danes had a castle within. On the other side of the river is a great trading place, which is called Sudvirke [Southwark]. There the Danes had raised a great work, dug large ditches, and within had built a bulwark of stone, timber, and turf, where they had stationed a strong army. King Ethelred [Æthelred] ordered a great assault; but the Danes defended themselves bravely, and King Ethelred could make nothing of it. Between the castle and Sudvirke there was a bridge, so broad that two wagons could pass each other upon it. On the bridge were raised barricades, both towers and wooden parapets, in the direction of the river, which were nearly breast high; and under the bridge were piles driven into the bottom of the river. Now when the attack was made the troops stood on the bridge everywhere, and defended themselves. King Ethelred was very anxious to get possession of the bridge, and he called together all the chiefs to consult how they should get the bridge broken down. Then said King Olaf he would attempt to lay his fleet alongside of it, if the other ships would do the same. It was then determined in this council that they should lay their war forces under the bridge; and each made himself ready with ships and men... King Olaf ordered great platforms of floating wood to be tied together with hazel bands, and for this he took down old houses; and with these, as a roof, he covered over his ships so widely, that it reached over the ships' sides. Under this screen he set pillars so high and stout, that there both was room for swinging their swords, and the roofs were strong enough to withstand the stones cast down upon them. Now when the fleet and men were ready, they rode up along the river; but when they came near the bridge, there were cast down upon them so many stones and missile weapons, such as arrows and spears, that neither helmet nor shield could hold out against it; and the ships themselves were so greatly damaged, that many retreated out of it. But King Olaf, and the Northmen's fleet with him, rowed quite up under the bridge, laid their cables around the piles which supported it, and then rowed off with all the ships as hard as they could down the stream. The piles were thus shaken in the bottom, and were loosened under the bridge. Now as the armed troops stood thick of men upon the bridge, and there were likewise many heaps of stones and other weapons upon it, and the piles under it being loosened and broken, the bridge gave way; and a great part of the men upon it fell into the river, and all the others fled, some into the castle, some into Sudvirke. Thereafter Sudvirke was stormed and taken. Now when the people in the castle saw that the river Thames was mastered, and that they could not hinder the passage of ships up into the country, they became afraid, surrendered the tower, and took Ethelred to be their king. So says Ottar Svarte:
London Bridge is broken down.
Gold is won, and bright renown.
Shields resounding,
War-horns sounding,
Hild is shouting in the din!
Arrows singing,
Mail-coats ringing -
Odin makes our Olaf win!"
Snorri Sturluson's chronology is somewhat confused. The above battle is classed as Olaf's sixth. The seventh is said to be his victory in "a great battle at Hringmara Heath in Ulfkel's land". This is clearly a reference to the battle at Ringmere, which took place in 1010, and in which, of course, Olaf would have been the enemy of England. Similarly, Olaf's eighth battle, where he is said to have been "commander of all the forces when they went against Canterbury", refers to the siege of Canterbury in 1011. Be that as it may, c.1015, Olaf succeeded in establishing himself as King of Norway.Gold is won, and bright renown.
Shields resounding,
War-horns sounding,
Hild is shouting in the din!
Arrows singing,
Mail-coats ringing -
Odin makes our Olaf win!"
The writer of the 'Encomium Emmae Reginae' asserts that Swein, whilst he was dying, had requested that Cnut, if he ever returned to Denmark, should take his father's body with him, "for he knew that he was hateful" to the English. Symeon of Durham notes that Swein was buried at York. Of course, Cnut had to depart England in haste, so Swein's body was left behind. Thietmar of Merseburg (d.1018) says that, when Æthelred returned to England, he was intent on desecrating Swein's corpse. In order to prevent this, some of Swein's sympathisers despatched his body to Denmark - accompanied by an unnamed English woman. The Encomiast reports that Swein's body did indeed arrive in Denmark accompanied by an unnamed "English matron". Harald and Cnut: "... received the body with honour, and with yet more honour placed it in the monastery which the same king had built in honour of the Holy Trinity, in the sepulchre which he had prepared for himself."
Florence of Worcester for 1015:
"In this year, as a great council was being held at Oxford, the traitorous ealdorman Edric [Eadric] Streona craftily invited Sigeferth and Morcar, sons of Earngrim, and the most considerable and powerful thegns of the Seven Burghs, to come to his chamber, and had them secretly killed there ..."
Æthelred may not have been directly involved in the murders, but he profited from it by confiscating the victims' estates. The plot rapidly thickens. Æthelred had ordered that Aldgyth, the widow of Sigeferth, be taken captive and held at Malmesbury. Edmund (who would become known as 'Ironside'), Æthelred's eldest surviving son by his first wife, seized Aldgyth and, in defiance of his father, married her. Between the 15th of August and the 8th of September, says Florence, Edmund:
"... went to the people of the Five Burghs, invaded the possessions of Sigeferth and Morcar, and brought the inhabitants thereof under his own dominion."
It is not hard to imagine that the rebellious Edmund received a warm welcome from the men of the Five Boroughs - after all, Cnut had abandoned the men of Lindsey to face Æthelred's ruthless retribution, so both of them must have been equally despised. Meanwhile, in Denmark, Cnut had been preparing his invasion fleet. According to the 'Encomium Emmae Reginae', Thorkell 'the Tall', with nine ships, had sailed to join Cnut.
The Encomiast maintains that Thorkell: "... asked his lord's mercy, and having become with great difficulty reconciled to him, he gave an oath of fidelity, to the effect that he would serve him continuously and faithfully. He remained with him more than a whole month, and urged him to return to England, saying that he could easily overcome people whose country was known far and wide to both of them. In particular, he said that he had left thirty ships in England with a most faithful army, who would receive them with honour when they came, and would conduct them through the whole extent of the country." The Encomiast is at great pains to whitewash Thorkell's treacherous behaviour. Completely overlooking the fact that Thorkell had fought alongside Æthelred against Swein, he depicts Thorkell as a loyal supporter of the Danish cause, and suggests that Thorkell had remained in England in order that, when Cnut returned, he could persuade the English nobility to surrender, or, failing that, attack the English from the rear.
In August, 1015, Cnut arrived off the English coast at Sandwich, Kent, but immediately sailed along the Channel:
"... until he came to the mouth of the Frome [i.e. Poole Harbour]; and then plundered in Dorset, and in Wiltshire, and in Somerset....
According to the 'Encomium Emmae Reginae', Cnut's fleet was of 200 ships - a far more reasonable figure than the 1000 given by Adam of Bremen (writing between 1072 and 1076). The Encomiast says that Cnut's brother, Harald, stayed in Denmark, whereas, Thietmar of Merseburg (d.1018) claims that Harald accompanied Cnut. Who is correct is open to debate. (Thietmar, incidentally, puts the size of Harald and Cnut's fleet at 340 ships - "every one of which had eighty men on board").
.... King Æthelred, meanwhile, lay sick at Cosham; and Ealdorman Eadric collected an army there, and Eadmund [Edmund] the ætheling in the north. When they came together, the ealdorman designed to betray the ætheling, but he could not; whereupon they separated without an engagement, and sheered off from their enemies."
'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'
"Shortly afterwards the ealdorman enticed away from the king's fleet forty ships full of Danish soldiers, and, going to Canute [Cnut], entered into his service."
Florence of Worcester
"The West-Saxons also submitted, and gave hostages, and horsed the army. And it stayed there until midwinter."
'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'
Around New Year, Cnut's army, accompanied by Eadric, advanced into Mercia. They crossed the Thames at Cricklade, making their way into Warwickshire:
"... and plundered, and burned, and slew all they met."
'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'
"When this came to the ears of the etheling Eadmund, surnamed Ironside, he mustered an army in great haste; but when it was mustered the Mercians refused to attack the Danes and West Saxons unless in company with Adelred [Æthelred] and the citizens of London: so the expedition was laid aside, and every one returned home. After the feast [of Epiphany, 1016], the etheling Eadmund again raised a still larger army: when he had mustered it he sent messengers to London requesting his father to meet him as quickly as possible with all the men whom he could command: the latter levied a large body of fighting men, and hastened to meet him. But when the two armies had united, it was hinted to the king that unless he was very careful some of his auxiliaries would betray him. On that account he shortly afterwards dismissed the army and returned to London ..."
Florence of Worcester
"Then rode Eadmund the etheling to Earl Uhtred in Northumbria; and every man supposed that they would collect an army against King Cnut; but they went into Staffordshire, and to Shrewsbury, and to Chester; and they plundered on their parts, and Cnut on his....
Florence of Worcester says that Edmund and Uhtred attacked those who, on the surface, would appear to be their own allies, "for refusing to go out to fight against the Danish army." Sir Frank Stenton ('Anglo-Saxon England') writes: "They have often been blamed for destroying English villages, but the chief estates of the Mercian ealdormanry lay in the districts which they ravaged, and it was there that the enemy could most easily find remounts and provisions." (Eadric was, of course, ealdorman of Mercia).
.... He [Cnut] went out through Buckinghamshire to Bedfordshire; thence to Huntingdonshire, and so into Northamptonshire along the fens to Stamford. Thence into Lincolnshire. Thence to Nottinghamshire; and so into Northumbria toward York. When Uhtred understood this, he ceased from plundering, and hastened northward, and submitted for need, and all the Northumbrians with him; but, though he gave hostages, he was nevertheless slain ..."
'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'
Manuscript C of the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' asserts that Uhtred was killed "by the advice of Ealdorman Eadric". This claim is, however, rendered unlikely by the testimony of Florence of Worcester and Symeon of Durham, who name the agent of Uhtred's death as one Thurbrand. Symeon says that Uhtred "was slain by a powerful Dane, Thurbrand, surnamed Hold, with the consent of Cnut". The anonymous author of 'De Obsessione Dunelmi' (The Siege of Durham) says that, previously (when he first invaded England), Cnut had asked Uhtred to join him against Æthelred. Uhtred, however, had declared his loyalty to Æthelred ("his lord and father-in-law"), and refused to aid Cnut. Now, having obtained a safe-conduct, Uhtred went to make his peace with Cnut, but: "... certain of the king's armed soldiers, who were hidden within the traverse of the house at Wiheal, behind a curtain which was there suspended, suddenly rushed out and killed the earl, and forty of the chiefest of his men, who had entered along with him. This was planned by the treachery of a certain powerful man, Turebrant [Thurbrand], surnamed Hold." Uhtred had been married twice before he married Æthelred's daughter. He repudiated his first wife (daughter of Ealdhun, bishop of Durham) and married the daughter of a "rich citizen" whose name was Styr. Styr had given his daughter to Uhtred "upon the understanding that he would put to death Turbrand [Thurbrand]", who was being "most hostile" to Styr. Perhaps Uhtred had indeed made an attempt on Thurbrand's life ('De Obsessione Dunelmi' does not say), which would certainly explain why Thurbrand was keen to kill him. At any rate, Thurbrand was killed by Uhtred's son, Earl Ealdred. Ealdred was, in turn, killed by Thurbrand's son, Carl. An unspecified number of Carl's sons and grandsons were massacred by Earl Waltheof, Uhtred's great-grandson by Ealdred's daughter. This last incident was relatively recent when 'De Obsessione Dunelmi' was written, so it is not known whether the feud carried on through further generations or not.
Having appointed, the Norwegian, Earl Eric of Hlathir as earl of Northumbria, Cnut marched back to Wessex (keeping to the west of the country, to avoid Edmund Ironside) - arriving at his ships before Easter (1st April) 1016.
Eric of Hlathir, Cnut's brother-in-law, had previously (since c.1000) been ruling in Norway, under Danish suzerainty. Eric was a renowned warrior, and, in his 'Anglo-Saxon England', Sir Frank Stenton suggests that it was, in large part, due to Eric's support that Cnut was able to assemble an "army adequate to the conquest of England". In Eric's absence, Olaf Haraldsson established himself as king of Norway.
"Meantime the ætheling Edmund went to London to his father: and after Easter went King Cnut with all his ships toward London; but it happened that King Æthelred died ere the ships came. He ended his days on St.George's day [23rd April] ..."
'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'
"... Aethelred, king of the English, died at London after a life of great disquiet and manifold tribulations, all of which St.Dunstan on his coronation-day, after placing the crown on his head, prophetically announced as about to come upon him: "Because," said he, "thou hast obtained the kingdom by the death of thy brother, whom thy mother has slain, therefore, hear now the word of the Lord; thus saith the Lord, "The sword shall not depart from thy house, but shall rage against thee all the days of thy life, slaying thy seed, until thy kingdom be given to another kingdom whose manners and language the nation whom thou governest knoweth not." And thy sin, and the sin of thy mother, and the sins of the men who have wickedly shed blood by her direction, shall be expiated only by long-continued punishment." [See: No Worse Deed Than This] His body was honourably buried in the church of St.Paul the apostle. After his death, the bishops, abbots, ealdormen, and all the nobles of England assembled, and unanimously chose Canute to be their lord and king; and having come to him at Southampton, and renounced and repudiated all the descendants of king Aethelred, made peace and swore fealty to him; and he, in his turn, swore that both in Devine and secular affairs he would be a faithful master to them. But the citizens of London and some of the nobles who were then at London, unanimously chose Eadmund the etheling to be king. Exalted to the kingly throne, he boldly and without delay marched into West Saxony [Wessex], and being gladly welcomed by the whole population, he quickly reduced it under his dominion; and a great number of the English people, hearing of this, hastened to make spontaneous submission to him."
Florence of Worcester
While Edmund was making himself master of Wessex, Cnut sailed up the Thames:
"Then came the ships to Greenwich, about the gang-days [7th-9th May], and within a short interval went to London; where they sunk a deep ditch on the south side, and dragged their ships to the west side of the bridge. Afterwards they trenched the city without, so that no man could go in or out, and often fought against it: but the citizens bravely withstood them."
'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'
"So, abandoning the siege for a time, and leaving a portion of the army to guard the ships, they marched into West Saxony with such speed that king Eadmund Ironside had no time to muster his army. Nevertheless, with the troops which in this short time he had got together, he boldly marched into Dorsetshire against them, trusting in God for help, and attacking them at a place called Peonn [Penselwood], near Gillingham, routed them and put them to flight. After midsummer, having again assembled a larger army than before, he boldly resolved to attack Canute, and fell in with him at a place called Scearstan [Sherston], in Hwiccia ... When they came to a spot where they could join battle, the hostile standards met with tremendous uproar; they fought with sword and spear, and with the greatest obstinacy. Meanwhile king Eadmund Ironside exerted himself to the utmost in the foremost ranks, provided for every emergency, fought hard in person, often struck down an enemy, and fulfilled at one and the same time the duties of a brave soldier and an able general. But inasmuch as that most traitorous ealdorman Edric Streona, and Almar [Ælfmær] the beloved, and Algar [Ælfgar] the son of Meaw, who ought to have assisted him, had, with the men of Southamptonshire and Wiltshire, and a countless host, joined the Danes - his army was overworked."
Florence of Worcester
The first day of battle (a Monday) was bloody but inconclusive. On the second day, Edmund had got the upper hand, and was heading for victory, when Eadric Streona:
"... cut off the head of a man named Osmear, whose face and hair were very like king Eadmund's, and, holding it up, cried out that it was useless for the English to fight, saying, "Oh! ye men of Dorsetshire, Devonshire and Wiltshire, flee quickly; ye have lost your leader: Lo! here I hold the head of your lord and king Eadmund: flee with all speed." When the English heard these words they were terror-struck, more by the atrocity of the thing than by the credit which they gave to their informer."
Florence of Worcester
The English forces, realising that Edmund was still alive, rallied, and fought on until dusk, when, as on the first day, battle stopped for the night. Under cover of darkness, Cnut's army departed for London, and renewed the siege.
In a gross and ridiculous distortion, the 'Encomium Emmae Reginae' places the battle of Sherston immediately after Cnut's arrival at Sandwich, in 1015. The Encomiast says that Thorkell had fought the battle to prove his loyalty to Cnut. With just his own troops ("from forty ships and more"), against an English force more than twice the size, Thorkell was victorious. In his record of the battle, William of Malmesbury says that Edmund, personally, hurled a spear at Eadric. Eadric dodged the missile - it passed through one soldier and impaled a second.
"Then he [i.e. Edmund] collected his force the third time, and went to London, all by north of the Thames, and so out through Clayhanger, and relieved the citizens, driving the enemy to their ships. It was within two nights after that the king went over at Brentford; where he fought with the enemy, and put them to flight: but there many of the English were drowned, from their own carelessness; who went before the main army with a design to plunder."
'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'
Whilst Edmund retired to Wessex to strengthen his army, the Danes returned to London:
"... and beset the city without, and fought strongly against it both by water and land. But the almighty God delivered them. The enemy went afterward from London with their ships into the Orwell; where they went up and proceeded into Mercia, slaying and burning whatsoever they overtook, as their custom is; and, having provided themselves with meat, they drove their ships and their herds into the Medway."
'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'
Thietmar of Merseburg records the siege of London (he says his informant was one Sewald). He places "the queen" and "her sons", Æthelstan and Edmund, in the city when it is besieged by Harald and Cnut in July 1016. After six months of siege, "the queen" enters into negotiations with the Danes, and agrees to hand over her sons for execution! In the meantime, however, the brothers, have managed to escape from the city. Edmund is killed in a battle with a Danish chief called Thurgut (who is also killed), but the Danes, seeing Æthelstan rallying a relief force, abandon the siege and depart. Possibly Harald and Emma were at London, but certainly Edmund wasn't killed, and better evidence places Æthelstan's death two years previously. The 'Encomium Emmae Reginae' places Earl Eric at the siege. The Encomiast says that Cnut: "... ordered the city of London, the capital of the country, to be besieged, because the chief men and part of the army had fled into it, and also a very great number of common people, for it is a most populous place." Saga tradition also places Eric at the siege. Eric is also said to have fought a battle to the west of London against Ulfcytel of East Anglia.
"Meanwhile king Eadmund Ironside, for the fourth time, collected a large army out of all parts of England, and fording the river Thames at the same spot as before [i.e. Brentford], quickly arrived in Kent, and fought a battle with the Danes near Ottaford [Otford]. They were unable to withstand his attack, but turned their backs and fled with their horses to Sheppey. However he slew all whom he overtook ..."
Florence of Worcester
At this point, the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' reports that Ealdorman Eadric met Edmund at Aylesford, and implies (noting "no measure could be more ill-advised"), that Edmund accepted Eadric's oath of loyalty. Florence of Worcester is at slight variance. He says that "the traitorous ealdorman" Eadric had deserted Cnut for Edmund after the inconclusive two days of fighting at Sherston. Florence claims that Edmund's victory over the Danes fleeing from Otford "would that day have been complete" if Eadric ("by his wiles and insinuations") hadn't detained him at Aylesford. (The Latin entry in Manuscript F of the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' says that, when Edmund arrived at Aylesford, Eadric "by a trick made the English army turn back"). At any rate, the Danes were off the hook. Crossing the Thames, Cnut's army went on a raid across Essex and into Mercia:
"When the king understood that the army was up, then collected he for the fifth time all the English nation, and went behind them, and overtook them in Essex, on the down called Ashingdon ..."
'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'
"There he [Edmund] quickly formed his line of battle, supporting it with bodies of reserve three deep... Meanwhile Canute very slowly brought his men down to a level ground; but king Eadmund, on the contrary, moved his forces as he had arranged them with great rapidity, and suddenly gave the word to attack the Danes. The armies fought obstinately, and many fell on both sides. But the traitorous ealdorman, Edric Streona, seeing that the Danish line was giving way, and that the English were getting the victory, kept the promise which he had previously made to Canute, and fled with the Magesetas [Magonsæte], and that division of the army which he commanded; thus craftily circumventing his lord king Eadmund and the English army, and by his craft throwing the victory into the hands of the Danes."
Florence of Worcester
The battle of Ashingdon took place on 18th October 1016. The 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' does not carry the allegation that Eadric had made a prior agreement, with Cnut, to withdraw his men from the battlefield, but implies he was simply a coward. The Encomiast, however, writes:
"And according to some, it was afterwards evident that he [Eadric] did this not out of fear but in guile; and what many assert is that he had promised this secretly to the Danes in return for some favour."
The Encomiast describes the battle in some detail, though how much of this is the product of a lively imagination is open to debate. He refers to Thorkell inspiring the Danish troops (with references to a magic banner) before the battle. The battle is said to have started "in the ninth hour of the day" and carried on into the night. Despite the withdrawal of Eadric's men, the Danes were numerically inferior, though more determined. The English eventually weakened, and fled the field. The Danes "... did not pursue the fugitives far, for they were unfamiliar with the locality, and were held back by the darkness of night... Then, when it was already past midnight, the victors, rejoicing in their triumph. passed the remainder of the night among the bodies of the dead. They did not, however, divide the spoil in the night, but in the meantime sought their companions, and gathering together in order to be more secure, remained all together in one place. At the coming of the morning light they became aware that many of their men had fallen in battle, and so far as they could, they buried their bodies. They also stripped the spoil from the limbs of their enemies, but left their bodies to the beasts and birds ..."
Many English leaders had been killed:
"And all the nobility of the English nation was there destroyed."
'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'
Among the dead were: Bishop Eadnoth of Dorchester, Abbot Wulfsige of Ramsey, Ealdorman Ælfric of Hampshire, Ealdorman Godwine of Lindsey, Æthelweard (son of Ealdorman Æthelsige of East Anglia), and Ulfcytel of East Anglia. According to material later added to an Icelandic volume originally written at the end of the 14th century (Flateyjarbók), Ulfcytel was married to a daughter of Æthelred called Wulfhild, and after Ulfcytel's death she married Thorkell. However, in his entry for 1021, Florence of Worcester names Thorkell's wife as Eadgyth.
"After this fight went King Cnut up with his army into Gloucestershire, where he heard say that King
Edmund was. Then advised Ealdorman Eadric, and the counsellors that were there assembled, that the kings should make peace with each other, and they exchanged hostages."
'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'
The Encomiast puts the following speech into Eadric's mouth: "Although I am hateful to nearly all of you, because I withdrew from the fighting, nevertheless if it were in your minds to follow my advice, you would be empowered by my counsel to become more victorious, than if you resisted these men with the forces of the whole country. For having had sufficient experience of Danish success, I know that we resist utterly in vain, and I retired from the battle to benefit you afterwards by my advice, although I was not, as you think, shaken by any fear. For since I knew that I had to flee, which was the better, to withdraw wounded or whole? There is, admittedly, a measure of victory in escaping for the time being by flight from a stronger enemy, whom it is not possible to resist with arms. Alas, we, who are here, are all fugitives; but to avoid this again befalling you, let us establish friendship with the Danes, in order that having them as allies, we may thus at least avoid flight and the risks of fighting. But this cannot come to pass otherwise than through a partition of our kingdom. And I consider it better that our king should have half the kingdom in peace, than that he should in despite of himself lose the whole of it at the same time."
Edmund and Cnut met on Ola's Island (possibly Naight Brook) in the middle of the Severn, near Deerhurst. (Florence of Worcester says they went in fishing boats - Edmund from the west bank, Cnut from the east). They agreed to partition England - Edmund taking Wessex, Cnut the country north of the Thames.
Neither the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' nor Florence of Worcester contain any suggestion that the meeting between Edmund and Cnut was anything other than peaceful. Islands were, however, a traditional location for Viking single combat (known as hólmganga - literally, 'island going'). In William of Malmesbury's version of events, Edmund demanded single combat with Cnut, that "... they might try their fortune without the destruction of their faithful adherents ... Cnut refused it altogether; affirming that his courage was surpassing, but that he was apprehensive of trusting his diminutive person against so bulky an antagonist; but, however, as both had equal pretensions to the kingdom, since the fathers of both had possessed it, it was consistent with prudence that they should lay aside their animosity and divide England." On the other hand, Henry of Huntingdon says it was "the great men of the realm" who decided the matter should be settled by single combat - and that the contest was actually fought: "Their spears on both sides were shattered against the highly-wrought armour they wore, and the affair came to be decided by the sword. Both nations heard and saw with groans and shouts the fearful clang and the gleaming flash of their arms. But at length the incomparable strength of Edmund dealt thunder on his rival, and Canute, though he defended himself stoutly, beginning to quail, cried out, "Bravest of youths, why should either of us risk his life for the sake of a crown? Let us be brothers by adoption, and divide the kingdom, so governing that I may rule your affairs, and you mine. Even the government of Denmark I submit to your disposal." The generous mind of the young king was moved to gentleness by these words, and the kiss of peace was mutually given." In the 'Encomium Emmae Reginae', Edmund is said to have offered to fight Cnut in single combat at an earlier stage - Cnut declined the invitation ("I will await a time, when contest will be fitting, and when anticipating no misfortune, I shall be sure of victory").
"Afterwards, having exchanged presents of arms and robes, and fixed the tribute to be paid to the fleet, they separated. The Danes, however, retired to their ships with the plunder which they had taken; and the citizens of London paying a sum of money, made peace with them, and allowed them to pass the winter there."
Florence of Worcester
On 30th November 1016, Edmund died.
"... though by what mischance is not known, he was buried at Glastonbury, near his grandfather Eadgar [Edgar]. Fame asperses Edric, as having, through regard for Cnut, compassed his death by means of his servants; reporting that there were two attendants on the king to whom he had committed the entire care of his person, and that Edric, seducing them by promises, at length made them his accomplices, though at first they were struck with horror at the enormity of the crime; and that, at his suggestion, they drove an iron hook into his posteriors, as he was sitting down for a necessary purpose."
William of Malmesbury
Henry of Huntingdon's version of the yarn referred to by William of Malmesbury places the death of Edmund at a house in Oxford. Edmund: "... having occasion to retire to the house for relieving the calls of nature, the son of the ealdorman Edric, by his father's contrivance, concealed himself in the pit, and stabbed the king twice from beneath with a sharp dagger, and leaving the weapon fixed in his bowels, made his escape. Edric then presented himself to Canute, and saluted him, saying, "Hail! thou who art sole king of England!""
"Soon thereafter it became evident to what end God commanded that he should die, for the entire country then chose Cnut as its king, and voluntarily submitted itself and all that was in it to the man whom previously it had resisted with every effort."
'Encomium Emmae Reginae'