In 937, King Athelstan's half-brother, Edmund, had fought alongside him at the battle of Brunanburh, where their English forces had roundly defeated a coalition of Constantine II, king of Alba, and his son-in-law, the Viking king of Dublin, Olaf Guthfrithson (Olaf son of Guthfrith).
The Vikings of Ireland were, predominantly, of Norwegian descent, and are sometimes referred to as 'Hiberno-Norse'. Olaf, himself, may well have had Danish ancestry. By this time, almost 150 years after the first arrival of Vikings in the British Isles, it seems reasonable to assume that the Hiberno-Norse had a cosmopolitan blend of Scandinavian and native blood in their veins.
In October 939, Athelstan died and Edmund, still only 18 years old, was his successor. Olaf, taking the opportunity offered by Edmund's inexperience, reacted immediately, and, before the year's end, apparently unopposed, he occupied York. Symeon of Durham takes up the story:
"... thence marching south, he [i.e. Olaf] besieged Northampton; but effecting nothing there, he made a diversion to Tamworth and plundered all around; when on his return he had reached Leicester, king Edmund met him with an army. There was no hard fight, since two archbishops, Oda [of Canterbury] and Wlstan [Wulfstan of York], reconciling the kings to each other, put a stop to the battle. And so peace being made, Watling-street became the boundary of each kingdom, Edmund governing the south, Onlaf [Olaf] the north part."
In his report of the same events,
Roger of Wendover says that, prior to the intervention of the two archbishops, there had been a battle at Leicester "which lasted nearly the whole day, and the loss on each side was excessive". Whilst Manuscript D of the '
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle', in its misplaced account (it appears in 943, rather than 940), notes that "much slaughter was made on either hand" when Olaf "stormed Tamworth", and that "Wulfrun [was] taken, in the spoiling of the town." There is no record of Lady Wulfrun's release, but, in 985 she was granted lands, by
Æthelred 'the Unready', which included a place called 'Heantune'. This became 'Wulfrun's Heantune', and is now 'Wolverhampton'. Be that as it may, Manuscript D says that: "King Edmund beset King Anlaf [Olaf] and Archbishop Wulfstan in Leicester; and he might have conquered them, were it not that they burst out of the town in the night."
The treaty between Edmund and Olaf represented a victory for Olaf. It gave him control of the, so called, 'Five Boroughs' (Leicester, Lincoln, Nottingham, Stamford and Derby), which had been freed from Danish rule (though the Danes still, of course, remained within the population) in the time of Edmund's father, Edward 'the Elder', more than twenty years previously.
According to Roger of Wendover, following the successful conclusion of the treaty, Olaf married Aldgyth, the "daughter of earl Orm, by whose counsel and aid he had gained the victory aforesaid." Orm probably equates to the dux Urm, who appears as a witness on some charters of Athelstan. The form of his name suggests he was of Danish descent, whilst his daughter's name suggests he had made an English marriage.
Olaf then turned his attention to Northumbria beyond the Tees. In 941, Olaf undertook what turned out to be his last expedition. Symeon of Durham reports that:
"Olilaf [Olaf], having plundered the church of St.Balter, and burnt Tiningham [Tyninghame, near Dunbar, Lothian], was afterwards killed; whence the men of York ravaged the island of Lindisfarne, and slew many. The son of Sihtric, named Onlaf [Olaf], reigned over the Northumbrians."
Olaf Sihtricson had been driven out of England, by Athelstan, in 927. He proved to be a weaker leader than his cousin, Olaf Guthfrithson, had been. In 942, Edmund won back the territory between the Humber and Watling Street. The 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' (except Manuscripts E and F) commemorates the event in verse (Translation by Michael Swanton), which brings out the point that the Mercian Danes were now an integral part of English society:
Here King Edmund, Lord of the English,
guardian of kinsmen, beloved instigator of deeds,
conquered Mercia, bounded by the Dore,
Whitwell Gap and Humber river,
broad ocean-stream; five boroughs:
Leicester and Lincoln,
and Nottingham, likewise Stamford also
and Derby. Earlier the Danes were
under Northmen, subjected by force
in heathen's captive fetters,
for a long time until they were ransomed again,
to the honour of Edward's son,
protector of warriors, King Edmund.
Symeon of Durham, against the year 943, states:
"The Northumbrians drove their king Onlaf from his kingdom."
Olaf appears to have been replaced by Ragnald Guthfrithson (a brother of Olaf Guthfrithson).
The 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' notes that, in 943, Edmund acted as sponsor to King Olaf, at his baptism, and, later the same year, acted as sponsor to King Ragnald, at his baptism.
Olaf, however, seems to have returned to Northumbria to contest for the throne. Perhaps this contest provided Edmund with the opportunity he had been waiting for. In 944:
"... King Edmund reduced all the land of the Northumbrians to his dominion, and expelled two kings, Anlaf the son of Sihtric [Olaf Sihtricson], and Reynold the son of Guthferth [Ragnald Guthfrithson]."
'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'
The circumstances are not mentioned, but, in 942, Idwal (known as Idwal Foel - 'the Bald'), king of Gwynedd, and his brother, Elisedd, were killed, say Welsh annals, "by the Saxons". At this time, Idwal's cousin, Hywel, was ruling in south-west Wales (Deheubarth). How he did it is unrecorded, but Hywel took control of Gwynedd, and Idwal's sons were expelled.
He probably also annexed Brycheiniog.
Hywel now ruled all but the south-eastern corner of Wales.
 | The only surviving example of a coin issued by a Welsh king was minted, in England (at Chester), for Hywel Dda. |
The events of his final years are not recorded by the annals, although tradition credits him with codifying Welsh law - possibly the reason he is remembered as Hywel Dda ('the Good'). He died in 950 - the 'Brut y Tywysogion' calls him: "chief and glory of all the Britons". After Hywel's death, Idwal's sons returned to press their claim to Gwynedd. In 951, there was a battle at Carno, in which they defeated Hywel's sons. In 953, two of Idwal's sons ravaged Dyfed, the heartland of Deheubarth, twice.
Five names appear in the Welsh annals as sons of Idwal: Iago, Idwal, Ieuaf, Rhodri and Meurig. The raids on Dyfed are not mentioned at all in the A-text (i.e. Harleian MS 3859) version of the 'Annales Cambriae'. In the B-text the two sons of Idwal responsible for raiding Dyfed are named as Iago and Idwal. The other annals, though, name the two sons as Iago and Ieuaf. Since Ieuaf translates to something like 'junior', it seems reasonable to suppose that Idwal and Ieuaf are one and the same. Ieuaf died in 988 - he is called Idwal, son of Idwal, in the B-text, and Ieuaf, son of Idwal, in the other annals. However, a character who was killed in 980 appears in all annals simply as Idwal, so there remains a possibility that this may be Idwal, son of Idwal. Incidentally, it is the 'Brut y Tywysogion' which says that Dyfed was raided twice.
In 955, another battle took place - at Llanrwst. It is presumed that, here too, Idwal's sons were the victors, since, later the same year, they caused devastation in Ceredigion. This was, apparently, the end of hostilities between Idwal's sons and Hywel's sons. Idwal's sons, possibly along territorial lines, divided the rule of Gwynedd between themselves. Of Hywel's sons, however, Rhodri had died in 954 and Edwin died in 955, so Owain was left as sole ruler of Deheubarth. It is possible that the 'Annales Cambriae' and the associated genealogies, preserved in Harleian MS 3859, were originally compiled at Owain's behest.
In Morgannwg (south-east Wales), one of Morgan's co-rulers, Cadell ab Arthfael, was apparently poisoned (no further details) in 942, whilst another, Morgan's brother, Cadwgan, was killed "by the Saxons" in 951. This would have left Morgan as sole ruler, but, around the same time (c.950), an upstart called Nowy ap Gwriad, of unknown origin, appears as king of Morgannwg's eastern province, Gwent. Nowy would be succeeded in the kingship by his son and two grandsons.
In the meantime, probably in 943, Constantine II had abdicated the throne of Alba ("infirm in his old age" says the 'Scottish Chronicle' in the 'Poppleton Manuscript' - he had been king for more than 40 years). He retired to a monastery, at St.Andrews, leaving the kingdom to Malcolm (Malcolm I - the son Donald II, Constantine's predecessor). In 945:
"... King Edmund overran all Cumberland [i.e. Strathclyde]; and let it all to Malcolm king of the Scots, on the condition that he became his ally, both by sea and land."
'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'
Roger of Wendover says that Edmund "with the aid of
Leoling [?], king of South Wales, ravaged the whole of Cumberland, and put out the eyes of the two sons of Dummail [Dunmail or Donald], king of that province."
Strathclyde appears to have taken advantage of the destabilisation of Northumbria (see:
Northumbrian Struggles I) to extend its southern border to the river Eamont, just below Penrith. Further, it is widely, though not universally, thought that Strathclyde was, by this time, a sub-kingdom of Alba (see:
The Fate of Strathclyde). It is possible, therefore, that Edmund, having
encouraged him to enter into discussions, was simply recognising Malcolm's jurisdiction over Strathclyde, at its present border, in return for Malcolm preventing Irish Vikings using the River Clyde, and the country of Strathclyde, as a safe route into Northumbria.
In 946, Edmund is known (Flodoard 'Annales') to have despatched a mission to Hugh, duke of the Franks, in order to negotiate the restoration of Louis d'Outremer (who was Edmund's nephew) to the throne of the West Franks. However, his intervention into French politics was cut short. Florence of Worcester, in his annal for 946, writes that, on 26th May ("the feast day of St.Augustine, the teacher of the English"), Edmund:
"... was killed at a royal vill called Pucelecirce [Pucklechurch, Gloucestershire], by Leof, an atrocious robber, while attempting to prevent the murder of his steward by the said Leof: his body was carried to Glastonbury, and buried by the abbot St.Dunstan."
William of Malmesbury is more expansive. He says that Leof, who had been banished six years previously, was suddenly spotted, by Edmund, sat next to one of his guests at the feast. Edmund "... leaped from the table, caught the robber by the hair, and dragged him to the floor; but the other secretly drawing a dagger from its sheath, plunged it with all his force
into the breast of the king as he lay upon him. Dying of the wound, he gave rise, over the whole kingdom, to many fictions concerning his decease. The robber was shortly torn limb from limb by the attendants who rushed in, though he wounded some of them ere they could accomplish their purpose."
Edmund was succeeded by his brother, Eadred. Florence of Worcester notes that, on the 16th August 946, he:
"... was crowned king, at Kingston, by St.Odo [Oda], archbishop of Canterbury. He brought all Northumbria under his dominion, in the same manner as his brother had previously done, and received an oath of fidelity from the Scots."
The 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' (Man.D) records that, in the following year (947), Eadred went:
"... to Taddenesscylfe [Tanshelf, Pontefract]; and there Archbishop Wulfstan and all the council of the Northumbrians bound themselves to an allegiance with the king. And within a little space they abandoned all, both allegiance and oaths."
The reason the Northumbrians renounced their allegiance to Eadred was the arrival on the scene of Eric 'Bloodaxe'....
Eric 'Bloodaxe' (Eric I of Norway c.930-c.935) was the son of Harald 'Fairhair' (
Harald I). In order to ensure his supremacy, Eric is said to have murdered several brothers - hence 'Bloodaxe'. His unpopular rule was challenged by Hakon, his surviving brother (Harald's youngest son), who, the sagas say, was raised in England, by Athelstan. Further, this tradition maintains that, when he fled from Hakon (c.935), Eric became ruler of Northumbria, at Athelstan's invitation. According to the 'Heimskringla', a collection of sagas chronicling the kings of Norway, written, in Old Norse, by Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson c.1225:
"As he [Eric] saw himself not nearly strong enough to oppose Hakon, he sailed out to the West sea with such men as would follow him. He first sailed to Orkney, and took many people with him from that country; and then went south towards England, plundering in Scotland, and in the north parts of England, wherever he could land. Athelstan, the king of England, sent a message to Eirik [Eric], offering him dominions under him in England; saying that King Harald his father was a good friend of King Athelstan, and therefore he would do kindly towards his sons. Messengers passed between the two kings; and it came to an agreement that King Eirik should take Northumberland as a fief from King Athelstan, and which land he should defend against the Danes or other vikings. Eirik should let himself be baptized, together with his wife and children, and all the people who had followed him. Eirik accepted this offer, and ... had his residence at York ..."
An episode in 'Egil's Saga' (anonymous, but sometimes also attributed to Snorri Sturluson) presents Athelstan in a less avuncular light:
"Eric saw no other choice but to flee the land ... they first went westwards over the main to the Orkneys... After that he went south with his force along the coast of Scotland, and harried there; thence still south to England, and harried there. And when king Athelstan heard of this, he gathered force and went against Eric. But when they met, terms were proposed, and the terms were that king Athelstan gave to Eric the government of Northumberland; and he was to be for king Athelstan defender of the land against the Scots and Irish."
The 'Heimskringla' goes on to contend that:
"King Eirik had many people about him, for he kept many Northmen who had come with him from the East; and also many of his friends had joined him from Norway. But as he had little land, he went on a cruise every summer, and plundered in Scotland, the Hebrides, Ireland, and Bretland [Wales], by which he gathered property. King Athelstan died on a sick bed, after a reign of fourteen years, eight weeks, and three days. After him his brother Jatmund [Edmund] was king of England, and he was no friend to the Northmen. King Eirik, also, was in no great favour with him; and the word went about that King Jatmund would set another chief over Northumberland. Now when King Eirik heard this, he set off on a viking cruise to the westward; and from the Orkneys took with him the Earls Arnkel and Erlend, the sons of Earl Torfeinar. Then he sailed to the Hebrides, where there were many vikings and troop-kings, who joined their men to his. With all this force he steered to Ireland first, where he took with him all the men he could, and then to Bretland, and plundered; and sailed thereafter south to England, and marauded there as elsewhere. The people fled before him wherever he appeared. As King Eirik was a bold warrior, and had a great force, he trusted so much to his people that he penetrated far inland in the country, following and plundering the fugitives. King Jatmund had set a king, who was called Olaf, to defend the land; and he gathered an innumerable mass of people, with whom he marched against King Eirik. A dreadful battle ensued, in which many Englishmen fell; but for one who fell came three in his place out of the country behind, and when evening came on the loss of men turned on the side of the Northmen, and many people fell. Towards the end of the day, King Eirik and five kings with him fell."
Snorri Sturluson begins his preface to the 'Heimskringla':
"In this book I have had old stories written down, as I have heard them told by intelligent people, concerning chiefs who have held dominion in the northern countries ... Some of this is found in ancient family registers, in which the pedigrees of kings and other personages of high birth are reckoned up, and part is written down after old songs and ballads which our forefathers had for their amusement. Now, although we cannot just say what truth there may be in these, yet we have the certainty that old and wise men held them to be true."
.... Eric established himself as king in York. Eadred responded quickly. In 948, he led an army into Northumbria. It raided at least as far north as Ripon, where the minster founded by St.Wilfrid was burned. On the way home, however, Eadred's army was attacked by Northumbrian forces from York. The Northumbrians inflicted heavy loses on Eadred's rear-guard as his army crossed the River Aire at Castleford. As Florence of Worcester says:
"The king was exceedingly indignant at this, and meditated returning and utterly laying waste all that district. The Northumbrians, alarmed at the news, deposed Irc [Eric], whom they had chosen for king, made amends to the king [i.e. Eadred], with personal obeisance, for the indignity, and with presents for the damage which he had sustained, and appeased his anger with a large sum of money."
In 949, Olaf Sihtricson appears to have, once more, been accepted as king in York. Manuscript E of the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' simply states:
"This year came Anlaf
Cuaran to the land of the Northumbrians."
The 'Scottish Chronicle' notes, that, around the same time:
"In the seventh year of his rule he [Malcolm I of Alba] raided the English as far as the River Tees, and seized a great number of men, and many herds of cattle ..."
The chronicler says that the raid was instigated by the aged Constantine II, but stories that Constantine had made the raid himself (having demanded of Malcolm "that he should give command of the army to him for a week, so he could visit the English") were not correct. It seems reasonable to assume that Constantine was keen to assist his old allies, the Dublin Vikings, and that this raid was, in some way, connected to Olaf's reappearance in Northumbria. The 'Annals of Ulster' record Constantine's death in 952. Its next entry, still for the year 952, states:
"The foreigners won a battle over the men of Alba and the Britons [of Strathclyde] and the Saxons."
The "foreigners" in question must have been the forces of Eric 'Bloodaxe', since the entry for 952, in Manuscript E of the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle', says:
"This year the Northumbrians expelled King Anlaf, and received Eric the son of Harold."
Whilst Manuscript D's entry for 952 reports that Eadred "... ordered Archbishop [of York] Wulfstan to be brought into prison at Jedburgh; because he was oft accused before the king ..." The annal continues, without further embellishment: "... and the same year the king ordered a great slaughter to be made in the town of Thetford, in revenge of Abbot Eadhelm, whom they had formerly slain."
Olaf Sihtricson's eventual fate is revealed in the (Irish) 'Annals of the Four Masters' (compiled between 1632 and 1636), which say that, in 980: "Amhlaeibh [Olaf], son of Sitric [Sihtric], chief lord of the foreigners of Ath-cliath [Dublin], went to Hi [Iona] on his pilgrimage; and he died there, after penance and a good life."
Eric reigned at York for two years. Manuscripts D and E, of the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle', announce, alongside the year 954:
"This year the Northumbrians expelled Eric; and King Eadred took to the government of the Northumbrians."
Manuscript D indicates that Wulfstan was then reinstated as Archbishop of York - he died two years later.
Roger of Wendover says that Eric, together with his brother and son, were treacherously killed by one Maccus "in a lonely spot called Steinmore [Stainmore]". Symeon of Durham notes that Eric was "driven out and slain by Maccus, son of Onlaf". It seems likely, therefore, that Maccus was the son of either Olaf Guthfrithson or Olaf Sihtricson. Although Maccus was the instrument of Eric's death, Roger of Wendover makes it clear that he was betrayed by Earl Oswulf. For at least six years, Oswulf (in a charter of 949, he is called "High-reeve at Bamburgh") had been ruling English territory north of the Tees. Now, by Eadred's gift, he became Earl of Northumbria.
"Here ended the kings of the Northumbrians; henceforth that province was governed by earls."
Symeon of Durham
Also in 954, Malcolm I was killed by rebels. The first event noted by the 'Scottish Chronicle' concerning Malcolm's reign had been that:
"With his army Malcolm proceeded to Moray, and slew Cellach."
It would seem, from a couplet in the 'Chronicle of Melrose', that the "men of Moray" got their revenge:
The men of Moray murdered him [Malcolm] in Blervie castle [near Forres];
Struck down by the axe of a deceitful clan of apostates.
However, according to the 'Scottish Chronicle':
"And men of the Mearns killed Malcolm in Fodresach [Fetteresso, near Stonehaven], that is in Claideom."
Eadred suffered from poor health, and, as Florence of Worcester relates, in 955 he:
"... fell sick, and his life was despaired of; so he sent swift messengers commanding the attendance of the blessed abbot Dunstan, his father confessor. The latter accordingly set out in all haste for the palace. As he was half way on his journey, he heard a voice from on high say distinctly, "Now king Edred [Eadred] rests in peace." Thereupon his horse, unable to endure the awfulness of the angel's voice, fell dead; but the rider was unhurt....
This story first appears in the earliest 'Life' of St.Dunstan, written c.1000, whose author is identified only by his initial, B.
.... The king's corpse was carried to Winchester, and was honourably interred by the said abbot Dunstan, in the Old Monastery."
Manuscript A of the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' says that Eadred died on "St.Clement's mass day [23rd November], at Frome". He was succeeded by his nephew, Eadwig.