Supplement
Addendum to The Vikings Return I: Unready
The Battle of Maldon
On the 10th or 11th of August 991, English forces were defeated by a Viking army at Maldon. Byrhtnoth, ealdorman of Essex, was killed in the fighting. Seemingly soon afterwards, whilst the memory was fresh, the event was commemorated in a vernacular poem, known today as The Battle of Maldon. It survived into (relatively) modern times in a single, incomplete, copy – both its beginning and end were missing. This copy found its way into the manuscript collection of Sir Robert Bruce Cotton (1571–1631).
The Cotton Library was bequeathed to the nation by Sir Robert’s grandson, Sir John Cotton, who died in 1702. On Saturday 23rd October 1731 there was a fire at Ashburnham House, Westminster, where the library was housed, in which The Battle of Maldon was destroyed. Fortunately, a transcript of the poem had previously been made, by one David Casley, underkeeper of the library. This transcript had been used, by historian Thomas Hearne, to produce a printed version in 1726. In the early 1930s, Casley’s transcript was discovered among papers belonging to Hearne.[*]
The poem, as it now exists, begins with Byrhtnoth deploying his troops for battle. He orders them to dismount and chase their horses clear of the site. He rides amongst them, giving instruction and encouragement, before himself dismounting amongst his most loyal retainers.
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mmmmmmmmmm… was broken. Then he ordered every young soldier to send off his horse, drive it far off and go forward, pay heed to hands and high courage. |
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5 | When the kinsman of Offa first discovered that the earl would not suffer slackness, he let fly from his hands his favourite hawk off to the woods, and advanced to the battle; by that you knew that the young warrior |
10 | would not weaken at battle, when he took up weapons. Likewise Eadric wished to support his leader, the lord in the fight; forward he went with his spear to battle. He had a stout heart as long as he might hold in his hands |
15 | board [i.e. shield] and broad sword; he fulfilled his boast when he had to fight before his lord. nmThen Byrhtnoth began to array the troops, ordered, instructed, and showed the soldiers how they should stand and hold the field, |
20 | told them to hold their shields securely, firm in their fists, and never be afraid. When he had properly organized all those men, he dismounted among the men where he most wanted to be, where he knew his retinue most loyal and brave. |
Byrhtnoth’s men are facing a Viking army across a tidal river – the Pante (now the Blackwater). A Viking spokesman (none of the Vikings are named) calls across the water. He demands tribute, saying it would be in Byrhtnoth’s interests to buy peace, rather than to engage in battle. Byrhtnoth replies that he will not give up without a fight, and orders his men to form a shield-wall along the river-bank. At length, the tide recedes, exposing a narrow causeway.
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25 | nmThen on the riverbank, stoutly shouting, stood a viking messenger who made a speech, broadcast the boast of the seafarers to the earl [Byrhtnoth] where he stood on the shore: “Bold seamen have sent me to thee, |
30 | commanded me to say that thou must quickly send us rings for protection; and it is better for you to buy off this spear-storm with tribute than for us to share such a hard battle. We needn’t ruin one another, if you’re rich enough; |
35 | we’ll call a truce in exchange for gold. If thou, the richest here, agree to this, that thou wilt ransom thy people, give to the seamen all the money they want in exchange for peace, and take a truce with us, |
40 | we’ll go back to our ships with your gold coins, sail off on the sea, and hold you in peace.” nmByrhtnoth spoke out, raised his shield, shook his slender spear and made a speech, angry and resolute, he gave this answer: |
45 | “Do you hear, seafarer, what this people says? they will give you spears for your tribute, poisoned points and ancient swords, the heriot that will not help you in battle. Messenger of the sailors, take back a message, |
50 | tell your people much more hateful news: here stands an undisgraced earl with his army, who will defend this homeland, the land of Æthelred, my own lord, the folk and the fields. Fated are heathens |
55 | to fall in battle – it seems too shameful to me to let you go with our gold to your ships without a fight, now that you have come this far into our country. You shall not get your treasure so easily; |
60 | points and blades will settle this business, grim war-play, before we pay tribute.” nmThen he commanded his men to carry their shields until they all stood on the river’s edge. The water kept each troop from the other |
65 | when the flood came flowing after the ebb, locking the water-streams. It seemed too long until they could bring their spears together. They stood arrayed on the shores of the Pante, the East Saxon vanguard and the Viking army; |
70 | neither side could strike at the other, unless one might fall from an arrow’s flight. The tide receded; the sailors stood ready, a great many Vikings eager for battle. |
Three brave Englishmen fiercely defend the crossing-place, keeping the Viking host pinned-down on the other side of the channel. The Vikings decide on a change of tactic, and, playing on Byrhtnoth’s pride, goad him into letting them cross.
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Battle is joined. Byrhtnoth is wounded by a spear, but carries on fighting. He is struck by another spear, and still carries on. His sword-arm is then wounded, so he can no longer fight, but he still spurs his men forward. He is now so weak he can barely stand, and he is hacked to death.
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The cry was raised, ravens circled, the eagle longed for prey, and panic was on earth. They let fly the file-hard spears, grimly ground spearheads from their grip; |
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110 | the bows were busy, the shield-boards took the arrows. The attack was bitter, on either hand warriors fell, young men lay dead. Wulfmær was wounded, chose his bed of slaughter; the kinsman of Byrhtnoth, savagely cut |
115 | to pieces with swords, his sister’s son. Payback was brought to the Vikings for that: I heard that Eadweard struck one fiercely with his sword – not stingy with strokes – until at his feet fell the doomed soldier; |
120 | his leader gave thanks for that to his chamberlain when he had the chance. nmAnd so they stood their ground, stouthearted young men at war, eagerly worked to see who might be the first to win |
125 | the life of a doomed man with his spear, soldiers with weapons; slaughter fell on earth. They stood steadfast; Byrhtnoth encouraged them, ordered each young warrior to give thought to war if he hoped to earn fame from the Danes in the fight. |
130 | nmThen came a tough warrior, weapon raised, his shield for protection, and stepped toward him [Byrhtnoth]. Just as firmly went the earl [OE eorl] to the churl [OE ceorl]; each of them thought to harm the other. The sailor sent off his southern spear |
135 | so that the lord of warriors [Byrhtnoth] was wounded; he [Byrhtnoth] shoved with his shield so that the shaft broke in two, and sprung out the spear when the point sprang back. The warrior [Byrhtnoth] was furious – he stabbed with his spear the proud Viking who gave him that wound. |
140 | The battle-leader [Byrhtnoth] was bold – he let his spear go forth, his hand threaded it through the young man’s neck and he took the life of his attacker. Then without waiting he stabbed another so his armour burst; he was wounded in the breast |
145 | through his ring-mail, a deadly point stood at his heart. The earl was the happier; he laughed, brave man, and thanked his Maker for the day’s work the Lord had allowed him. nmThen one of the Vikings threw a spear from his hand, |
150 | let it fly from his fingers so it went too far, through the noble thegn of Æthelred [i.e. Byrhtnoth]. By his side stood a half-grown young warrior, a boy in the battle, who very boldly drew out the blood-drenched spear from the man – |
155 | Wulfstan’s son, Wulfmær the Young – and sent the hard spear flying back again; the point went in, so he lay on the earth, the one who had grievously wounded his lord. Then an armoured man went to the earl, |
160 | he wanted to plunder the warrior’s gear, his robes and rings and decorated sword. Byrhtnoth drew his sword, broad, bright-edged, from its sheath, and swung at his mail-coat. Too soon one of the seafarers stopped him |
165 | with a wound in the earl’s arm. The gold-hilted sword fell to the ground; he could no longer hold the hardened blade, or wield a weapon. But still the old warrior said what he could, encouraged the young men |
170 | and bade them go forth as good companions. He could no longer stand steady on his feet; he gazed up to heaven: nm“I give thee thanks, O Lord of Nations, for all the joys I have had in this world. |
175 | Now, gracious Maker, I have most desperate need that Thou grant grace to my spirit, so that my soul may journey to Thee into Thy keeping, King of Angels, and depart in peace. I implore Thee |
180 | that the fiends of Hell may not harm it.” Then the heathen savages hacked him up, and both the men who stood beside him, Ælfnoth and Wulfmær both lay dead, and gave up their lives with their lord. |
The cowardly Godric flees from the battle on Byrhtnoth’s horse. Many others, thinking that it is Byrhtnoth who is fleeing, themselves run away. The poem, as it now exists, closes with Byrhtnoth’s faithful followers fighting to the bitter end.
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185 | nmThen some unwilling ones bowed out of the battle: the sons of Odda were the first in the flight, Godric left the battle, and abandoned the good man [i.e. Byrhtnoth] who had often given him many horses; he leapt on the horse that belonged to his lord, |
190 | in his riding gear – which was not right! – and his brothers with him both ran away, Godwine and Godwig didn’t care for battle, but turned from the war and took to the woods, fled to safety and saved their lives, |
195 | and many more beyond any good measure, if they had remembered all the rewards he had given them for their services. So Offa had said, earlier that day in the assembly, when he held a meeting, |
200 | that many a man spoke bravely there who later would not stand firm at need. nmThen the people’s leader lay fallen, Æthelred’s earl; all the house-troops saw that their lord lay dead. |
205 | Then forward pressed the proud thegns, uncowardly men hastened eagerly; they all wanted one of two things – to give up their lives or avenge their dear lord. nmSo the son of Ælfric urged them forward, |
210 | a warrior young in years spoke his words, Ælfwine spoke, and bravely said: “I remember the speeches we made over mead when we raised our boasts on the benches, heroes in the hall, about hard struggle; |
215 | now he who is bold has to prove it. I will make known my noble descent to all: I come from a famous family among the Mercians, my ancestor was called Ealhelm, a wise nobleman, and prosperous in the world. |
220 | Thegns will not mock me among my people, that I would go away from this army, seek my homeland, now that my lord lies cut down in battle. Mine is the greatest grief: he was both my kinsman and my master.” |
225 | He went forth, remembering revenge, until with the point of his spear he struck one of the seamen so that he lay dead on the ground, cut down by his weapon. He urged his comrades, friends and companions, to go forth. |
230 | nmOffa spoke, shook his ashen spear: “Indeed, Ælfwine, you have reminded all the thegns at need, now that our lord lies dead, the earl on the earth. Each of us needs to encourage every other |
235 | warrior to war, as long as his weapon he can have and hold, the hard blade, the spear and the good sword. Godric, wretched son of Odda, has betrayed us all. When he rode off on that horse, that proud steed, |
240 | too many men thought that it was our lord; and so our forces were divided on this field, the shield-wall broken. Shame on his deed, by which he caused so many men to flee!” nmLeofsunu spoke and raised his shield, |
245 | his board for protection, and replied to him: “I hereby promise that from hence I will not flee the space of a single foot, but will go further, avenge in the battle my beloved lord. The steadfast men of Sturmer [in Essex] need not |
250 | mock me, now that my lord has fallen, saying I would go home without my lord, turn away from war – instead weapons shall take me, point and iron.” Full of ire he went forth, fought tenaciously; he scorned flight. |
255 | nmDunnere then spoke, shook his spear, a humble churl, cried out over all, urged each man to avenge Byrhtnoth: “He must never weaken, who hopes to revenge his lord on this people, nor care for his life!” |
260 | Then they went forth, not fearing for their lives; the retainers set about fighting fiercely, the grim spear-bearers, and asked God that they might avenge their dear lord and bring about the downfall of their foe. |
265 | The hostage began to help them eagerly; he was from a strong family of Northumbrians, the son of Ecglaf – his name was Æscferth. He never weakened at the war-play, but he shot forth arrows ceaselessly; |
270 | sometimes he struck a shield, sometimes a man, again and again he gave one a wound, as long as he was able to wield weapons. nmStill in the front stood Eadweard the Long, brave and eager, spoke boastful words |
275 | that he would not flee a single foot’s space, or turn back now that his better lay dead. He broke through the shield-wall and did battle with the seamen, until he had worthily avenged his treasure-giver, then took his place among the slain. |
280 | Likewise Ætheric, excellent comrade, eager, death-ready, fought earnestly. Sibyrht’s brother and many another split banded [?] shields, boldly defended themselves – the shield-rim burst, and the byrnie sang |
285 | its grim horrible song. Then Offa struck a seafarer in the fight so that he fell to the earth, and there Gadd’s kinsman [i.e. Offa] sought the ground. In the heat of battle Offa was hacked up, but he had lived up to his promise to his lord – |
290 | he had boasted before his ring-giver that they would ride together into the stronghold, get home safely, or fall in the slaughter, die of wounds on the field of war: he lay like a thegn at his lord’s side. |
295 | nmThen shields were shattered, the sailors advanced, enraged by battle; spears broke open many a doomed man’s life-house. Then Wistan went forth, Thurstan’s son, and fought with them; he was the killer of three in that crowd, |
300 | before Wigelin’s son [i.e. Wistan] lay down in the slaughter. There was keen conflict; the men stood firm in the struggle, warriors fell, weary with wounds. Slaughter fell on earth. Oswold and Eadwold all the while, |
305 | two brothers, exhorted the troops, bade their band of brothers with their words that they had to stand steady there at need, use their weapons without weakness. nmByrhtwold spoke, raised his shield – |
310 | he was an old retainer – and shook his ash-spear; he most boldly gave the men a lesson: “Spirits must be the harder, hearts the keener, courage the greater, as our strength grows less. Here lies our lord all hacked to pieces, |
315 | a good man in the dust. He will mourn evermore who thinks to turn back from this war-play now. I’m an old man; I will not leave, but by the side of my lord – by such a beloved man – I intend to lie.” |
320 | nmSo also the son of Æthelgar urged them all, Godric, to the battle. Often he let go a spear, sent a slaughter-shaft whirling to the Vikings, as he advanced foremost among the folk, hacked and laid low, until he fell on the field. |
325 | That was not the Godric who turned away from the battle … |